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The Purpose for Man’s Existence

The Purpose for Man’s Existence

The choice

In this work we postulate the following thesis as a presumed purpose for man’s existence: ‘Confronting the enigma of the universe man, part of the enigma, has a choice between belief and disbelief in an external finality, a creator-cause.’

Meaning an Directionality of Sense 

We propose to study in this article the sense-reference of this choice.  Sense is expressed in two manners. The first considers ‘sense’ in terms of ‘meaning’ referring to explanation that man is led to work out with relation to his confrontation with the universe. The second, ‘sense’ is considered in terms of ‘directionality’ of explanation in a two-optional alternative effectuated between ‘belief’ and ‘disbelief’. The motive of choice postulates that through man’s confrontation with the universe, and in order to explain it, a total lack of evidence for the presumption of either option, the individual is obliged to refer to his faculty of belief and deliberate a free and a voluntarily choice between the two options, namely: to believe in a creator-cause or not to believe in an external finality; a creator-cause: a God.

Aim of this study

We will attempt to present the hypothesis of the ‘choice’ and test it against the texts of monotheistic religions and in the thought of certain philosophers, scientists and ideologists, in order to establish grounds for collective attitude patterns as well as individual ones.

The notion of choice

For the purpose of our work we propose to study the choice in its own proper term and then in terms of religious connotations in order to establish its probable validity in this realm. The hypothesis of the ‘choice’ will be examined next according to the attitude of certain philosophers (Buddha, Aristotle, Leibniz, Spinoza, Kant, Nietzsche, Sartre, Russell)(1), certain scientists like (Pascal, Descartes, Freud, Einstein, Hawkins) and ideologists like (Karl Marx), in order to establish the grounds for the decision of the choice in the thought of these thinkers.

Belief and Disbelief

The basic foundation for the notion of the ‘choice’ comprises a decision of preference by the individual person between two options. This study focuses on a presumed two options represented in one alternative namely,

a. To believe, or,

b. To disbelieve, in: An external finality-identified here as a creator-cause: God.

According to the attitude of every individual the ‘choice’, in case of belief, may be spontaneous, immediate, clear and direct (faith), or can be a thoughtful ‘choice’ produced by subjective justification of ‘reasoning’, or can be a combination of the two. Or, it can be a choice of rejection of belief (disbelief) which is produced by an immediate terms depend on man’s convictions. We are in a con chance, such resentment or a prolonged intellectually reflective decision. Thinkers like Aristotle, Pascal, and Sartre considered the ‘choice’ in the same manner revealing the same mechanism in defining the ‘choice’ as a logical process of choosing between two options of the same alternative.

Inborn Curiosity for Knowledge and the problematic

We are assuming that man’s curiosity motivates him to pursue knowledge through thought. The natural need to know is the starting point that instigates the process of awareness of the universe and oneself. We have proposed the idea that the objective of thinking and acquiring knowledge, whether scientific or otherwise is to explain what is. Knowledge in our perspective has a directional finality, to enable man to make his choice. The enigmatic presence, nature, structure, origin and functionality of the universe, are the key questions where knowledge tries to figure out. Whether life is the product of an overall order-plan or the result of hazard-chaotic absurdity demands explanations. Our world offers us problematics that propose causality as part of the hypothetical explanations. The pursuit of knowledge confronts us, at every instance, with a possible hypothesis of a designer, or several, since we did not contribute ourselves to such phenomenon. The lack of evidence for or against such hypothesis imposes the choice as the only alternative.

Knowledge and Perception of it

Science (Latin: sciré: to know, to be acquainted with, to recognize: based on evidence) and arts (another approach of perception, to recognize, to discern, to identify, to be conscience of, to be aware of, to captivate and to represent) are the bases of perceptible reactions. Psychological or spiritual apprehension is equally decisive in perceiving knowledge. Every one is confronted with the same object, phenomenon or thing, but reacts to it differently. These reaction-attitudes can be classified into conception-expression means of communicative decisions. We presume that despite all scientific, aesthetic, moral, psychological or spiritual experiences and discoveries we are unable, until now, to discover answers to ‘ultimate knowledge’. Man we are assuming is at the present state of knowledge is in a state of ignorance with regard to ‘ultimate knowledge’.

Ultimate Knowledge

At the present time the presumed ‘ultimate knowledge’ produced by the confrontation of man with the universe is inaccessible. Man, facing this inaccessibility, recoils to his faculty of conjectural speculations, in search for explanations and lack of evidence to his faculty of belief and disbelief. The alternative of choice imposes itself as an obligation. The choice between belief and disbelief in a creator-cause becomes the only option that confronts the individual. Endowed with the mind, tool of reason, freedom of will and free arbitration, man deliberates his choice in accordance with his own personal convictions. The mechanism of this presumption can be reduced to the followings notions:

A. Confrontation between man and the universe.

B. Astonishment and natural curiosity as inborn aptitudes.

C. The need to explain the world.

D. The incapacity of individual, or even the collective

intelligence, to explain the presence, the origin and finality of

objects constituting the universe, as well as the nature of these

objects, until the present time.

E. The emergence of hypotheses of non-verifiable causes.

F. Total lack of proof, reference, index or even solid argument

for these hypotheses.

observing, examining, analyzing, comparing, synthesizing and

 G. The emergence of a hypothesis of a creator-cause, or

many.

H. The forced confrontation of two-fold alternative of a

choice:

The inevitable obligation of making the choice between the

two options:

A. Belief or

B. Disbelief, in an external finality, a creator-cause: God

K. The finale and inevitable decision of the choice before

death.

L. Death seals the choice.

Confrontation between man and the universe can be examined

at different levels of encounters:

1. The physical encounter, where the object (a butterfly, a tree, a planet, a galaxy) is perceived through our senses. Here the observer exercises curiosity which sets off reaction in terms of questioning. (Physical experience)

2. The aesthetical encounter: Here, the object emanates something which set off a sentimental psychological reaction, whether of admiration or rejection, in the observer. (Aesthetical experience)

3. The ethical encounter: The ethical attitude is related to a sense of duty, a moral responsibility, or morality reaction, a necessity for ethical interpretation of something, a state or an action. (Ethical experience)

4. The intellectual encounter: where the observer resorts to reason. Here, the faculty of reason is employed, namely, concluding concerning the presence, nature, structure and form of an object: constituents, origin and finality of an object perceptibly and the intelligibly. (Reasoning experience)

5. The spiritual encounter: Where the observer seizes the object directly and without the intermediary of the intellect. Here the observer captivates an object or an event through a faculty different from his other faculties. (Spiritual experience)

6. The encounter of the whole: We can, perhaps, add another experience to these five principle ones namely, what is considered as the sixth sense, where a feeling of extra physical, psychological, mental, ethical, esthetical or spiritual perception, e.g. sensing an object or an event without the intermediation of any of these five means. We can consider that in every experience, or a combination of experiences, the individual confronts a phenomenon and this interaction instigates a reaction to whether or not there is causality.

These six encounters, or means of awareness, can be considered as indivisible entity experience, as in Buddhist meditation.

Inevitability of the Choice Lack of Proof

In our perspective we are always postulating that the absence of proof, for or against the existence of causality, renders the choice inevitable. The uncertainty of metaphysics as well as of religious speculation concerning evidence, does not offer us enough support to settle the question of belief and disbelief which remains a suspended decision. (2) The absence of something tangible, or even a solid argument, denoting such causality gives freedom to think in deliberating the choice.

Free arbiter and fatalism

It is in this individual liberty that every person finds expression of his choice. Although man is obliged to choose between one of the two options he has the freedom to make his choice between the two. In the choice responsibility of individual freedom grants the individual his value as a human being. We do not consider fatalism and predestination as valid criterion for the decision of the choice, since it bereaves him from his freedom and his will and renders him not responsible for his decisions. Without such freedom he is reduced to an irresponsible mechanical robot. We assume that the idea of the choice is founded on the freedom of the individual to make his own choice as he wants. No other person can share with him in the final decision in the making of his choice. Although persuasive and dissuasive means of influence, whether familial, societal, psychological, religious or ideological, are endless exercising maximum pressure, in either way and in favor of either option, it is up to the individual himself to make the choice. He alone is responsible While freedom of decision is the criterion of the choice the individual determines the outcome of his final decision. Every individual person can thus envisage the world, interpret it and explain it in accordance to his own convictions.

Vacuum of Ignorance

As was discussed earlier, the impossibility to conclude from universal phenomena, whether empirical-sensible or intelligible-spiritual, the hypothesis of the existence of causality emerges as a probability where evidential knowledge is unattainable. Knowledge in itself, and at its present state, is unable to provide with such explanative answers. Accessibility to ultimate knowledge is needed to acquire evidence. It is when we realize our incapacity to attain ultimate knowledge that personal convictions are prompted by belief or unbelief. Confronted with this state of ‘inaccessibility’ creates a vacuum where man becomes aware of his limitations and where knowledge is unable to provide answers that the choice is imposed.

Oscillation

Although choice is free and willful, but inevitable, it is restricted to two options. No third option is possible. To believe or not to believe, in a creator-cause is a forced decision where one can alternate indefinitely until death where the final decision is taken. Rejection of the choice indicates already that a choice has been taken. A skeptic, the indecisive who doubts or who oscillates between the two options, even the nihilist, can be considered as one who has chosen to reject belief, as long as he did not make his choice to believe. One cannot be a believer and unbeliever at one and the same time. He is either one or the other. He can alternate between the two options as much as he desires but once he makes his choice he is classified in one term or the other.

As is in the case of other major forced human aspects such as form, shape, color, constitution, systems, motivations and needs; eventualities, such as birth, development, aging and death (where man has no choice but to accept and endure), the choice is another forced phenomenon upon man. The term ‘forced’ means ‘obliged to accept and has no choice in the matter’.

Forced Existence

Forced existence refers to the fact that he did not choose to be in his form, his size or possessing systems constituting him physically, mentally, psychologically, ethically and spiritually( for those who believe in the soul). He is forced to go through a life cycle, entering from one door, passing duration of time and then dying. He has no option in all these, not even in the color of his eyes. Nobody asks him whether he likes to come into this life or to age or to imposed and man has to choose. Man is forced into this then find no evidence for ultimate knowledge? Why specific form? Why should man confront the universe?

 Nobody takes his opinion whether he would like to have two arms, two legs, a trunk and a head. He undergoes the process of aging and cannot retard it for a moment. He is submitted to all these processes without the least choice. Similarly, man is forced to interact with the universe whether he likes it or not, for survival and knowledge acquisition. He is forced to think and cannot stop thinking. In the same way we consider the choice as a forced decision that the individual has to take before his death.

Uselessness of Proof

We consider that according to the perspective of the choice any possibility of a proof or disproof for causality renders the decision of the choice void and renders life meaningless with no goal to achieve. For, indeed, why the mystery and why the enigma? Why should man strive for knowledge and undergo a specified duration of time .

Causality

 Man undergo life and death? Why should man have no saying in all these things? The way is indicated, the alternative is situation of choice. Although the decision of the choice can be verified it is next to impossible to verify why man should make the decision of the choice. Maybe the answer is suggested in religious texts. We assume in this work that it is precisely the ‘absence of proof’, for or against a creator-cause, represents the meaning for man’s existence. We consider the choice as the corner- stone for such directionality of meaning. The perspective of the choice provides sense, order and aim for man’s transitory existence where specific conditions are indispensable: a life- cycle i.e. birth, maturity and death; a mind to think; the need for confrontation with an enigmatic universe; the need for an explanation and that this explanation is sterile, the emergence of causality; absence of proof or disproof for such a causality, i.e., a creator-cause and freedom of will to deliberate the final decision.

In this way we consider any individual, whether a philosopher, a scientist, an artist or man of letters, or any person who attempts to establish a proof, or disproof, for such causality practices an exercise in futility. Many, like (Buddha, Aristotle, St. Paul, St Aquinas, Pascal, Descartes, Leibniz, Kant, Nietzsche, Freud, Russell, Sartre or Picasso) have attempted such an enterprise, namely to give proof for or against the existence of a God, but their Endeavour ended up in pure conjecture.

What is interesting in this attempt is that each of these thinkers had to make up his own choice, despite the lack of proof or disproof.

We emphasize the fact that no religion, among the three principle monotheistic religions (that asserts the thesis of the existence of one God), or among other belief-systems (Hinduism, Zarathustraism, Magus, Sikhism or Baha’ism), advances substantial evidence for its claims.

Purpose of forced phenomenon

In our study we do not attempt to deal with an answer to the ‘why’ question of having to make the choice. In other words: Why should man make a choice between belief and disbelief in an external finality? Or, what is the purpose of this forced phenomenon? For we do not pretend to any argument in the direction of this problematic. Another question which is equally important is: Being so important as a decision, are there any consequences for making the choice? There is no way to verify the validity of such an inquiry.

A third question emerges as well that is related to: who takes the decision of choice within us? Is it our reason? Is it our sentiment? Is it our natural intuition? Our soul? Or is it the other person within? It is very difficult to provide with answers. But one thing is certain; we have to face the universe and we have to choose.

As long as man remains a mystery and as long as the universe and its constituent phenomena remain also as enigmas, yielding no evidence or proof, choice between belief and disbelief in finality, internal or external, is unavoidable. Reason and belief remain as the only resorts in deliberating our decision of the choice.

Viability of collective choice

Although all these questions are important with respect to the choice, we are limiting ourselves only to the notion of choice as a decision between two options. The decision of choice can be observed on an individual level as well on a collective level. Example of a collective choice can be observed in the Jewish People’s attitude displayed in the Old Testament as well as in the New Testament and the Qur’an. The attitude of Christians and Muslims towards belief can be traced in the New Testament and the Qur’an respectively. A collective choice of a whole community can be verified for example in a Synagogue, Church or Mosque. The attitude of people in communist countries during and after the dominance of the USSR in the world particularly in the Soviet Union, or in China, North Korea and other rigid communist countries in the twentieth century, manifest a collective rejection of faith and belief, due to the ideological Marxist system. This collective choice can be empirically verified.

Collective choice representative of individual choice

But we consider that collective choice is nothing but an assembly of individual choices taken separately by each individual person, where personal responsibility is total, owing to the freedom and will of the individual. Despite the colossal influence of the collectivity the individual person has always the total freedom and the will to decide his, or her, own choice. Marxist ideology did not eradicate religious belief throughout the seventy years of dictatorship in the ex Soviet Union.

The individual choice is easier to verify with a simple questionnaire where the individual declares his decision or indecision. Communal choice is more difficult to trace than the individual decision. Statistics of people’s belief or ejection of belief are not applicable with precision in the great majority of present world societies. In previous world societies these statistics cannot be verified precisely because of the individual or group freedom on the one hand and the nature of the privacy of the decision on the other. These statistics are unavailable.

Agnosticism and Gnosticism

The choice can be concretely assessed between Gnosticism and agnosticism. Oscillations can be established, without over generalizing or over charging factual evidence with undue interpretations, in the Scriptures. Monotheistic beliefs have been a precise measuring criterion between belief and disbelief in one creator-cause until the present time. This criterion leads to a clear two-fold classification grouping attitudes into two distinct perspectives. According to this criterion of identification individuals are classified either as believers or disbelievers following their choice with regard to a creator-cause. In the twentieth century, and especially in the post modernity, these characteristics became more trenchant and the world population is more and more distinctively divided up between believers and non-believers.

Historical Applicability

The perspective of the choice can be applicable to all epochs throughout history. Fluctuations between the two options can be traced in all Scriptures. While the Middle Ages witness to the tension between the Church and science, later epochs disclose the influence of science and the gradual minimum Union in 1981 and the rise of religious fundamentalism gave role of metaphysics. In contemporary history religious belief can be clearly distinguished from atheistic disbelief on a mass level. This fact has dominated the world scene in the 20thc:

Two-fold Trends

Atheistic Marxism (predominantly disbelievers: about two billions) versus religious belief (predominantly monotheistic: about two billion believers). The break down of the Soviet momentum to the already rising revivalist religious reaction worldwide. Religious revivalism has culminated in the clash of civilizations religiously oriented among different cultures especially in post modernity. Traditional monotheistic movements on a transnational level emerge to constitute a religious rivalry on a world level. Religious revivalism was already in the making during the twentieth century as a reaction to Marxist materialist atheism and to the materialist values of capitalism. The reason for religious revivalism is not that both ideologies whether socialism or capitalism, failed to give a clear meaning for human existence, but rather the dictates of the choice between materialism and the spiritual outlook that decided between the two.

Notwithstanding the strong societal influence over the individual decision in the choice the final decision belongs to the individual himself. No other person, group, community or society can be held responsible for one’s own decision. An individual born and brought up in a Mormon environment, for example, is likely to choose Mormonism as a belief-system in preference to Buddhism, Hinduism or atheism. But the choice of a Mormon of his belief-system in reference to others is not an obligatory choice. Many adherents of one creed or another have left their belief-systems and have chosen others or have rejected belief altogether. Likewise examples can be cited of those who were atheists and chose to believe in one religion or another, or a certain philosophy. Whether religious teachings of certain belief-systems do not permit a change of a belief-system, every person in reality has the freedom and will to do so.

Choice of ‘reason’ and choice of ‘faith’

The fundament in choice is lack of proof for the existence, or non-existence of a creator-cause. The choice is not founded on a hazardous conviction of the individual. It can resort to ‘reason’ or/and to ‘faith’ for its own justification.

If reason can be described as deliberate awareness of mental apprehension process (as in the satellite dilemma which  requires justification), faith can refer to direct decision (as in the aesthetical experience of a rose which may prompt a rose- conceptor, or simply it presumes a creator-cause as act of faith), or reject all metaphysical explanations.

Both reason and faith lack evidence and are founded on personal conviction. It is not within the domain of logical speculation to assign reason to the mind and faith to the heart (for the simple reason we cannot identify any of these proof. Both stem up from the perceptible and both phenomena), as some religions depict. If reason is a deliberate systematic awareness of phenomena based on facts, faith can be presented as an immediate criterion of judgment based on feelings. The former may result in the latter lack for factual end up in conjecture. This is where the choice becomes a forced obligation.

If we accept these criteria (reason and faith), and for the sake of the argument, as means of deliberating the choice, we can proceed to examine the notion of choice in belief-systems of monotheistic religions and then in the thought of a selection of thinkers.

We believe that the idea according to which any belief- system, whether religious (which can be considered as the invention of man’s own thought, or by divine inspiration as proclaimed by religion), or any presumptive philosophy, is brought about by man’s confrontation with the universe.

Empiricism as the separating line

Science and metaphysics are separated by empirical criterion. Although both are expressed by symbolic expressions of communication, both are short of evidence to provide support for belief or disbelief. While scientific empiricism can lead to disbelieve, metaphysical thought can be achieved through the very lack of evidence. All depends on one’s personal reaction to phenomenon. The universe offers the choice for both parties. Each party justifies its own preference depending on its choice.

When Napoleon asked Laplace, why there was no mention of God in his works; Laplace (an ardent believer himself) retorted to Napoleon: ‘Sire, I do not need this hypothesis for my theory.’ creator-cause.

The Encounter

The encounter of Laplace with the universe, and in order to interpret it with scientific rigor, he reduced it to mathematical formulas. It is exactly at this very point where mathematical interpretation is established we can separate belief from disbelief. According to the attitude of the individual person, here a scientist-mathematician, we can classify the person according to his belief or disbelief.

Mathematical interpretation of the universe does not permit access to verifying the existence or the non-existence of ultimate truth. At the point of the encounter with the universe the six-level dimensions of experience is set off immediately, intuitively and directly. These experiences are means of assisting the individual to conclude his final decision.  Departing from the same phenomenon, the thinker can opt for one option or another. The same phenomenon can lead the individual into opposite directions.

Theosophical Examples of the Encounter

For example, Nietzsche chose to reject the idea of a God-cause while Leibniz chose to believe in this cause. Both thinkers, looking at the same phenomenon-the universe- did not change their attitudes. Kant, as another example, encountering the idea of what is ‘moral’ concludes the necessity of the existence of God, ‘God is a moral necessity’. Nietzsche, by rejecting the moral, rejects God. He further considers that the universe is the product of hazard and chaos. Leibniz considers order and organization as references denoting the necessity of God’s existence. The choice between belief and disbelief vis-à-vis the existence of an ‘external finality’ or ‘cause-creator’ may be considered as ‘crisis of doubt’ or as ‘crisis of soul’ or even as ‘crisis of conversion’ and ‘crisis of situation’. It is certainly a conflict within man as well as without. pretend to neither truth nor to reality. These are s by its very nature, tends to search for truth ,

The Dilemma

 It is an inner conflict between identification and truthful reality. It is the doubt in the authenticity of one or the other. The mind stands as a judge, but in the choice it is impossible to establish its findings. The choice is an obligation as long as ultimate knowledge remains a mystery, unverifiable. Crisis of decision can be permanent without preferring one option to the other and can remain so until death. Here the indecisive individual oscillates permanently between the two options without any decision. The skeptic suspends his decision of judgment permanently for reasons of lack of proof. The annihilator annihilates the decision on the grounds that the reality of the decision cannot be attained. The doubtful is indecisive and alternates between the two decisions convincing himself one time of one option and another with the opposite option. In all these cases lack of evidence suspends decision. But indecision belongs to non-belief as long as the individual does not choose belief.

The nature of faith and religious belief

The departing point for this question is a difficult one, i.e. distinction between faith and confidence in reason. A definition of belief can denote, ‘to captivate one’s intelligence under the authority of God’, and faith, which presupposes the point of view of motivation, such as ‘the divine authority, accepted purely and simply; it is the respect that submits before superiority’, considering the divine authority as ‘the guarantee for revealed truths, is not only the motive for belief, but it becomes the cause’. The difference between the two is that ‘the act of faith is founded ontologically, but not logically, on preliminary certainties’. In one way we can perhaps assume that faith as certainty of belief without proof is superior to knowledge because it goes beyond it (notwithstanding contradiction in terms), ‘it is the immediate can be produced, but this is not the case. There is water atom.

Experience versus conjecture

We have no accessibility to what is the comprehension of a supra-sensible reality’, without the intermediation of reason, a sort of ‘illuminated intuition’, ‘understanding the unintelligible’, a ‘trust’ that ‘vanishes by demonstration’. We can consider that, the act of intelligence that precedes and prepares the act of faith, and works on the motivation and credibility leading to adhesion, which is the conclusion of an inquest and an adhesion of science. The inquest which satisfies the mind is concluded favorably. It is an act of faith in the supernatural, but is of a natural order. Belief is a thought of the possibility of the existence of a thing that lacks proof for its existence. Despite the limitations of this definition of belief, belief remains open to human imagination. Belief seizes to be belief if a proof can be produced. We can not assume the validity of a thing by an empiric scientific proof: our knowledge according to which a particle of water is formed of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen is dependant on atmospheric conditions (chemical-physical criteria) conducive to the formation of the structure of this atom of water, its origin, its presence or its purpose. Our knowledge is limited to its artificial presence in terms of life element. But ‘why should it be?’ is difficult to reply.

Responsibility of the choice

Being forced into having to deliberate one’s choice the individual has the responsibility of his choice in as far as his choice is unavoidable. There is no evidence for the presumption of responsibility. But the fact that the choice is inevitable renders man this responsibility. If such responsibility can be proven then evidence for either option, no reference indicating this responsibility and lesser still any evidence that the choice is an obligation, except that one has to make it. Confrontation between man and the universe is a Nevertheless; an underlying sense denotes implicitly these two assumptions namely, the inevitability and responsibility.

The inevitability can be indicated by the fact that every individual has made his choice or is deliberating his choice. The presumption of responsibility stems from the fact that every individual must take the decision.

The choice is individual and universal

Universality of the Choice

Within the perspective of the choice we assume that every individual person, sane and adult who has the faculty or judgment (reasoning), the liberty (to decide between the offered two options), the will (to deliberate) ought to choose: individual interaction where the individual experiences consciousness of what exists. Life with its vicissitude imposes on man dissuasive and persuasive effects in as far as the choice is concerned. Not only the mere confrontation of mind-universe has decisive element on the choice but also life experience becomes a determinant factor. Every individual person is subject to his immediate environment, small or large, and ultimately exposed to the whole world. All events, whether birth and death, good and evil, love and hatred, health and illness, gain and loss, are phenomena of thought and reflection enabling man to determine his final decision.

The choice as an inner conflict

Subjectivity of Finality

The conflict is an external-internal strife within man to deliberate the final choice. As an internal conflict we consider that the choice between belief and disbelief is in paradoxical opposition in every individual. The two opposite, just like life and death instincts, are innate and the decision rests subject to one’s subjective convictions. In this perspective we do not consider the dialectical process as valid mechanics of explanation, for the the conflict becomes more acute where indecision or vitalist-finalist ones in explaining the universe. We make reference to the natural impulse of reason. Choice involves two alternatives of which the actor is allowed one solution and not a synthesis: an individual is either a believer or a disbeliever. He alone can produce the final decision. Natural instincts, as well as interaction with the universe, persuade and dissuade man to choose either way.

Paradoxical opposition

As long as the enigma of existence remains as such and the universe is inexplicable in terms of how and why, we are confronted with belief and disbelief in causality. Inner-external interactions, whether opposite or congruent, are directed to give the individual grounds for choosing. The subjectivity of decision explains extremes of attitudes throughout history ranging from absolute rejection of belief in a ‘God’ (militant atheists) to convictions of certitude of belief (unison with God: ascetics, mystics, Sufis). We consider the choice as a universal phenomenon since every individual, adult and sane, is subject to the confrontation with the universe and is obliged to make a decision. While the choice is an inescapable decision during a life-time, death seals the choice.

The choice is an external conflict

Here the conflict lies in the inclinations of the individual, while deliberating his choice, towards mechanicist arguments is created to make a choice, for example, the skeptic, the doubtful, and the nihilist. Oscillation between one option and the other indicates clearly this conflict.

The choice is non transmissible

The choice is restricted to the individual himself. It is purely an unshared personal experience. Interaction with the universe is an individual and personal activity that cannot be communicated nor transmitted. As the experience is personal and subjective the decision of the choice cannot be transmitted from one person to another. Prescription of feelings and thoughts of personal convictions can be communicated but the experience itself cannot be shared by two persons. The decision depends entirely on the attitudes of every person, his personality and his personal reactions and decisions. The process of deliberating the choice is the result of infinite confrontations between man and the universe. At every encounter the individual is confronted with the decision itself. i.e., observing natural phenomenon.

Throughout history and under different types of pressures the choice was subject to influence, e.g., religious, societal, political, economic, educational, ideological. While influence can be enormous the decision itself remains the free will of the individual. Only when the individual himself decides on his choice the decision is made.

The individual choice and the collective choice

Collective choice is the assembly of individual choices. Whether the individual or the collectivity is subject to societal influences, this does not deprive the individual from his liberty to choose. Here we do not share the opinion advanced by Henri Lacroix of ‘dominance of authority’ and ‘the absence of liberty and will’ with regard to the decision of the choice whether through ‘personal faith’ or ‘collective choice’. We do not approve either that ‘authority’, whether ‘implicit or explicit’ and ‘submission to the notoriety, ‘imitation, ‘habit’ or ‘automatism’, ‘collective excitation’ or ‘ecstatic cult’ replace the personal decision of the individual. These factors, individual himself. No other person, a collectivity, as mentioned above, can have influence on the individual’s decision of choice but the final decision belongs to the can take away the freedom of the individual, for individuality is a particularity for every human.

Societal syndrome

In a society we observe the two opposite choices in coexistence. The choice itself can be a group identification of adherence, in separation and in concert. It can be also a criterion for harmony and dispute, conflict and war. It has direct impact on political, social and economic relations and structures of the adherents of belief or disbelief. Entities, or collectivities, belonging to either option can also decide the form and group conduct. It establishes criteria for national, regional and international relations. It is, in fact, a basic feature of individual identification and collective behavior. Conflicts and wars as well as peace and rapprochement are direct results of opposite choices. Crusades and Church inquisitions are but few examples.

Collective choice according to religious belief

In ancient history influences can be observed in the deliberation of communal decisions. The influence on collective choice is often the influence of certain individuals. For example, the influence of the individual decision of Akhenaton and his wife Nefertiti, the Egyptian Pharaohs (1352 BC), to abolish polytheism and establish monotheism, limiting deity to one god: Ateni the god of the sun, was decisive in the Pharoanic society. The influence of Moses (according to the Torah), of Jesus-Christ (according to the four Books of the Evangel) and the influence of Muhammad (according to the sources of Islam: Qur’an and Tradition) is of verified importance. On the other hand, the influence of disbelief practiced by certain individuals like Buddha, Nietzsche, Freud, Karl Marx, Fredrick Engels, Lenin, Mao Tse Tong, is massively observed. much as deciding on one option.

Most political influences are imposing influences where the masses are subjected to choice pressures by indoctrination, pressure, temptation, education and other dissuasive and persuasive methods. But the choice remains always subject to individual free will.

The choice is free and voluntary

We discussed above the choice as a personal and individual decision. Jean Jacque Rousseau, in Oeuvres, expresses his personal choice throughout the different phases of his life: ‘I believed in my childhood by authority, in my youth by feeling, in my adulthood by reason; now I believe because I have always believed.’ It is more likely for a Mormon brought up in a Mormonism community to be a Mormon, a Jew to be a Jew within his community, a Muslim to be a Muslim within his, or an atheist to be an atheist if he is brought up in an atheist environment. But there is always the freedom of change of belief to another belief system or to the rejection of belief. If the decision is individual and free, indecision can be, and often is, a reason for adjourning the final decision. It is up to the individual to fluctuate between the two options.

The Determining Will

The will is considered here as the determination to affirm an idea or a sentiment and passes to action. The role of freedom is to enable man to choose between the two options, it is the final concluding act of the individual’s freedom. Determination of decision by the will can be temporarily or can be permanent. The temporary decision is a decision that is subject to change. The permanent is a determinant and irreversible final decision. The permanent decision can seal the choice once and for good until death.

Spinoza, Kant and Sartre Positions  

Spinoza considers the will as ‘the capacity to place oneself outside the chain of causes and effects’, but this denotes impartiality of decision. If the will can liberate itself from this, it acts independently of it. Descartes considers the will as ‘not really free but only when it is illuminated by understanding’. On the other hand, such a will indicating ‘human power to choose’, is not admitted by Spinoza. For Descartes, man has the power ‘to do or not to do’.

This choice does not implicate any arbitrariness. Descartes considers the ‘indifference’ which produces oscillation from one side to the other, without inclining towards one or to the other, is the basest degree of freedom. He considers understanding illuminates freedom and hence the decision of choosing is taken perfectly ‘in knowledge of cause’. Spinoza, on the other hand, does not situate freedom in free judgment but in free necessity. For Spinoza, ‘man does not have the will to do or not to do’. Man considers himself, and wrongly so, is above the laws of nature, assumes a finalist prejudice making him believe that all in nature is made for him. For Spinoza man is free when he knows that he exists and acts in a determined manner as all accomplished beings in nature.

Kant in the Critique of Pure Reason presupposes the double character of man. If man, by his sensitive character, is subordinated to natural determinism, he is entirely free by his intelligible character and imputable of his actions.

Sartre, in L’Etre et le Néant, assumes that man is ‘condemned to be free’. In the case where he is ‘first project’ of himself, man chooses entirely his life: ‘there exist no values a priori susceptible to justify his acts’. From this freedom, without foundations, ‘man can not be conscience except in ‘anguish’.’ He denied the existence of God.

Mechanicists versus Vitalist-Finalists 

In our perspective we consider that ‘choice’ is an effect produced by the confrontation between the mind and the world, and hence ‘understanding’ is always free. Otherwise, man becomes a mechanical robot void of reason and have no ‘reason of being’. The value of man consists in this very freedom to think, act and feel as he likes. The choice between the mechanicist-atomistic-physical explication and the causalist-finalist-extra-physical explication is an important indication of the liberty of the individual.

The biased choice

Nietzsche and Leibniz

The biased choice indicates that the individual does not need to confront with the universe in order to make his choice. In fact, he can choose between the two options prior to his interaction with the universe, or outside the confrontation, for other reasons than the confrontation with it. Nietzsche has decided very early in his adolescence to disbelieve in the existence of God and was a militant atheist all his life; he was simply angry with God. Leibniz, similarly and early in his adolescence, decided to believe in this cause and defending it; he loved God. In the case of the two philosophers, they both confronted with the universe and concluded their opposite attitudes drawing support from the same phenomena for each one’s position.

We ought to specify here that a great number of persons choose between the two options with reference to the same phenomena, motivated by various reasons other than their confrontation with the universe. For example, there are those who reject the idea of the existence of a God because of personal dissatisfaction, or hatred or anger against God; there are those, on the opposite side, who believe in the existence of God for psychological satisfaction and dependence, or out of fear and hope. This choice can be identified as the ‘biased choice’, being prior to the actual reflective confrontation with the universe. The decision is then taken ‘outside’ the confrontation with the universe but the universe and experience serve to consolidate the arguments of each party. The pivot point of difference is always lack of evidence for either position.

The choice is empirically verifiable

Finally, we consider that the notion of the choice can be empirically verified. Every individual, mentally healthy and adult, has either already deliberated his choice between belief and disbelief in a creator cause, or he is deliberating this choice. This decision, whether already taken or in the process of being taken, can be actually identified. We have assumed that, as the forced presence of man’s being, the imposed life-cycle, form and structure, motivations and needs, as well as his development, aging and death, considered to be programmed or non-programmed, he is obliged to make the choice.

Confrontation with the universe, whether for the purpose of survival or for acquiring knowledge, is inevitable. Man in his actual state as presence, structure and functioning is already endowed with natural instincts to confront and interact with the universe. He has to think and acquire knowledge. The obligatory interaction between man and the universe necessitates comprehension and explanation. This is the basis of acquiring knowledge. The need for an explanation instigates the idea of a cause, but lack of evidence for such a cause leads to the choice between belief and disbelief.

______

1. Assuming that the first Buddha (6thc BC) and Aristotle (4thc

BC), unlike other thinkers, were not exposed to monotheistic

religious awareness, such as Judaism (13thc BC, written 7thc

BC).

2. Henri Delacroix supposes that natural religion opposes

revealed or positive religion, because natural religion cannot

be reference of human nature, heart and reason. He claims that

natural religion treats positive religions as reason and

unreason, confusion of the mind or spirit, predominance of

imagination, the weakness of the critical mind explains

sufficiently the strangeness of religious myths. He considers

natural religion as preceding revealed religion. Henri

Delacroix, Religion et la foi, Librairie Félix Alcan, Paris,

1922, p. 163.

About the Author

Always been a Buddhist

A question about prophets in Islam?

I’m currently reading a fascinating book by Karen Armstrong: “A History of God” (highly recommended, by the way).

In the Quran, God has mentioned 26 of His Prophets/Messengers because He wanted to. According to the sayings of Prophet Muhammad(SAW) which is the knowledge from God he had received there were 126000 Prophets/Messengers between Prophet Adam(ASM) and Prophet Muhammad(SAW). The 26 are mentioned by name in the Quran the other 125974 are not mentioned by names in the sayings of the Prophet Muhammad(SAW). I think she is overstating her case. Because if she’s mentioning people coming after Prophet Muhammad(SAW) then they could not possibly have been God’s Prophets. And God knows best.
There’s also a book called ‘Stories of the Prophets’ (don’t remember the author’s name) but you can find it in any islamic book store should you want to give it a go.

Process oriented guided inquiry learning (POGIL) part1

Importance of Team Management

What is Team Management

The term team management or team work has been borrowed from the sports terminology, where all members of a team, strive together to have a common goal. Individual strength and commitment of each member of a team is very essential to continue as the member of the team. Each member at the same time work for himself as well as for his/her colleague to success and grow together. They share the problems and success, nobody blames on other if there is any mistake or failure, but they try to find out the reason of failure, and seek a solution for the problem collectively. Now this concept is rapidly flourishing in academic organization to improve and develop the quality of work to managing the organizations effectively.

Importance of Team Management

Managerial success is primarily built upon the accomplishments of subordinates. As a result successful managers are, in a manner of speaking, carried by subordinates who are motivated, know what is expected of them, have access to appropriate resources and technologies, and are well trained. Managers who create such a work force increase the probability that they will achieve high performance results. However, to state that successful managers are carried by their subordinates does not tell the entire story. As we move further into the modern era the successful managers are increasingly turning their energies to team building to regain the competitive edge. The team nature however is not limited to large manufacturing organizations. It is alive and growing in both small and large organizations. It is alive and growing in both small and large organizations and has spread to health care organizations, government agencies, and other service-related organizations.

Team once formed, act to focus subordinates efforts and help to ensure subordinates commitment through employee involvement, creativity and mutual support. At the very least, team involvement increases employee satisfaction, acceptance of change, and facilitates creative problems solving.

The importance of team can be best understood by considering the following high-performance equation:

Performance = ability × effort × support     (A ×E×S)

Individual performance can be maximized when above performance equation can be met. Each of these activities directly affects one or more of the independent variables listed in the performance equation A, E and S.

With the work group, individual performance is enhanced when support comes from two sources namely from the manager responsible for the work group and from other group members. In the traditional sense managerial support occurs when managers fulfill their role as leader, administrator, coach and adviser. When these roles are not adequately carried out, it becomes increasingly difficult for subordinates to effectively perform their job responsibilities. Managers who do not clearly set their goals and state expectations increase the probability that subordinates will behave in ways inconsistent with preferred behaviors. Managers who fail to bring together the correct equipment, resources and people cannot expect subordinates to perform at peak levels. Last, managers who do not coach, encourage and advise are likely to limit the growth and development of their staff.

The second area to support comes from the together members of the individual’s work group. When a work group develops into an effective team, this type of support is maximized.

Types of Team Management

Team can be classified on the basis of their objectives. It can do a variety of things. It can design products, provide service, negotiate deals, coordinate projects, offer advice and make decisions. The six most common forms in an organization are following:

• Planning Team
• Functional Team
• Problem-Solving Team
• Self-Managed Team
• Cross Functional Team
• Virtual Team

Planning Team

Forming a team which is responsible to sketch out a road map for an organization to way forward is called Planning team. This is the most important team of an organization. This type of team usually comprised of five or more experts of a same discipline sit together and discuss various ways and modes of constituting an organization. They are likely to be very vigilant in the current trends and contextual needs of a function vis-à-vis the manifesto or the goals of the organization to which they are planning for.

Functional Team

Functional teams are also called as the operational teams; this kind of team is usually composed of a manager and the employees in their organization. They are responsible to manage field related operations and functions.  Under the patterns of functional teams, mainly issues, such as authority, decision making, leadership, and interactions among the members are relatively simple and clearer.

Problem Solving Team

A team from same department or functional area that’s involved in efforts to improve work activities or solve specific problems is called problem solving team. These teams are also responsible for trouble shooting and on the spot crises management. Almost twenty years ago teams were just beginning to grow in popularity and the form they took was strikingly similar. These teams typically were composed of five to twelve hourly employees from the same department who met for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment.

In problem solving teams all the members of teams share ideas or offer suggestions on how work processes and methods can be improved. In this type the members are expected to be very creative and innovative to seek alternate solutions for emerging problems in the day to day functions of an organization.

Self-Managed Team

An other type of team commonly being used in organization is self-managed team. It is also called self-directed and automatic team work. It is formal group of employees that work without a manager and is responsible for complete work process that delivers a product or service to an external or internal client. This kind of team has control over its work pace, determined work assignments and inspects its own work. Self-directed teams even select their own members and have members evaluate each other’s performance. Even they do their own hiring, scheduling, rotate jobs on their own, establish production targets and set pay scales that linked to skills.

Cross Functional Team

This is also very important type of team management. Cross functional team, in which employees from different work area related to same hierarchical level works together in various tasks in the organization. Workers are brought together to achieve their targets. Many organizations have used cross functional team, however, the popularity of cross functional work teams exploded in the late 1980s. Cross functional teams are also effective ways to allow employees from diverse area within an organization to exchange information, develop new ideas, solve problems and coordinate complex task with each other. But cross functional teams can difficult to manage. This difficulty with diversity however can be turned into an advantage and can help to identify creative or unique solutions. As a result, team member become familiar with one an other, they form a more organized group, but the positive aspect of this decline in diversity is that a team bond is built. It takes time to build trust and teamwork.

Virtual Team Work

Virtual teams are teams that use technology to link physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal. In virtual team all the members are linked through media; such as teleconferencing, fax, email, or websites where the team can hold online conferences. Virtual team can do all the things that other teams can share information, make decisions, and complete tasks; however they miss the face to face meetings and discussions and team members never meet each other.

Characteristics of Team Management

It is strongly believed that the performance of team effects on the progress of work. Good teams show good results in their organization. It enhances the capacity of workers in the team. What can be the common characteristics which effective team has? These are:

Figure 1.1

High- performance work teams have both a clear understanding of the goal and a belief that the goal embodies a worthwhile or important result. Moreover, the importance of these goals encourages individuals to redirect energy away from personal concerns and towards team goals. In high performing work teams, members are committed to the teams’ goals know what they are expected to accomplish, and understand how they will work together to achieve those goals. Effective teams are composed of competent individuals. They have relevant technical skills and abilities to achieve the desired goals and the personal characteristics required to achieve excellence while working well with others. Effective teams are characterized by high mutual trust among members. That is members believe in the integrity, character, and ability of one another. They are willing to do anything that has to be done to help their team succeed. Unified commitment is characterized by dedication to the team’s goals and willingness to expend extraordinary amounts of energy to achieve them.

Effective teams are characterized by good communication. Member conveys messages, verbally and nonverbally, to each other in ways that are readily and clearly understood. Also feedback helps to guide team members and to remove misunderstandings. Problems, issues and relationships are regularly changing in teams if the members have ability to confront and reconcile differences this ability in members is called negotiating skill.

Effective leaders can motivate a team  follow them through the most difficult situations by clarifying goals, demonstrating that change is possible by overcoming inertia, increase the self-confidence level of team members and helping members to more fully realize their potential. More and more all the time, leaders act as coaches and facilitators. They always guide and support the team like leader of geese.

Internal and external support for an effective team create supportive climate. Internal support of team should have sound infrastructure, proper training of team members, clear and reasonable measurement system that team members can use to evaluate their overall performance and incentive program which increase the moral of team and a supportive human resource system. In external support of team, manager should provide the team with resources needed to get the job done.

Stages of Team Development

One of the greatest challenges a coaching manager has is in moving his or her team though the various team development stages. If a manager has no or little experience of teams and team dynamics then taking over a team and then leading that team can be a very stressful experience. Every manager should know what the various growth stages are of a developing team and they should know how best to move the team through these stages with the minimum worry and stress. Unfortunately, many managers do not get the necessary training or coaching in this area of team development and as such teams go through a lot of stress and anxiety when perhaps this could be minimized quite considerably.

In the next paragraphs, I will take you through a simple team development model, which I find the most useful of all the models I have studied. The names of each of the stages sum up perfectly what you can expect at each stage.

Psychologist, B.W Tuckman in the 1970s, developed this model and Tuckman suggests that there are four team development stages that teams have to go through in order to be productive. Along with the Tuckman four team development stages I have also included a preparation and maintenance stage. These stages are as under:

Stages of Team Development

Figure 1.2

Preparation

It is important that managers prepare for their team-building activities. It is during the presentation stage that managers collect relevant information, analyse their environments, and develop strategies that will guide them through succeeding stages. During this stage managers also want to consider the behaviors and strategies that will ensure each remaining stages are successfully completed. In short, preparation stage presents the blueprint of all remaining stages of team development.

Forming

At this stage team members are usually optimistic but hesitant and tentative as they begin to get know to one other and define themselves as a team. During this stage group member define who they are, what the group is, and define in their own minds what everyone else is supposed to doing. In this stage manager play an active role in creating the environment in which group members obtain a clear picture if what is expected of them and why. Manager can complete this process by carrying out many activities so that process may complete successfully. These activities may be:

• Orientation Programs
• One-on-One goal setting
• Group discussion
• Team pairing

These activities can build a good rapport between the team manager and team members.

Storming

After forming stage every group will then enter the storming stage in which different ideas compete for consideration. The team addresses issues such as what problems they are really supposed to solve, how they will function independently and together and what leadership model they will accept. Team members open out to each other and confront each other’s ideas and perspectives. In some cases, storming can be resolved quickly. In others, the team never leaves this stage. The maturity of some team members usually determines whether the team will ever move out of this stage. Immature team members will begin “acting out” to demonstrate how much they know and convince others that their ideas are correct. Some team members will focus on minutiae to evade real issues.

The storming stage is necessary to the growth of the team. It can be contentious, unpleasant and even painful to members of the team who are averse to conflict. Tolerance of each team member and their differences needs to be emphasized. Without tolerance and patience, the team will fail. This phase can become destructive to the team and will lower motivation if allowed to get out of control. Supervisors of the team during this phase may be more accessible but tend to still need to be directive in their guidance of decision making and professional behavior.

Norming

Norming is characterized by acceptance. Whereas in the storming stage, people were apt to rebel very quickly, this is now not the case and if someone has a grievance, complaint or suggestion then the proper processes are used and people tend to be listened to. The role of the coaching manager in this stage is to ensure that this calm continues and that any behaviors that arise that may threaten the calm are channeled in the right direction. Also the coaching manager has an important role in conveying information particularly in relation to the successes that are starting to occur within the team. The coaching manager should be spending a lot of time with individual team members coaching them and supporting them to develop their capabilities that relate to the individual’s team role and the tasks that they have to perform in relation to the team goals.

Performing

It is as though that team is comfortable in this stage and does not want to progress further for fear of returning to a storming stage, a stage that probably was very uncomfortable for most people. It is at the performing stage where team members really concentrate on the team goals. They are determined to work towards them, as they know what rewards are available to them on completion. They are also aware of the strengths and weaknesses of the team, and they appreciate these, and also work towards developing the weaknesses. This is a period of great personal growth among team members. The coaching manager at this stage will play very much a nondirective role, concentrating on strategy to plan the next way forward. The team will be in many ways, self-directing, perhaps even self-appraising with the manager taking very much a back-seat role. Again the manager’s role will be to facilitate communication and ensure that the successes are communicated and rewarded.

Maintenance and Renewal

After performing stage the maintenance and renewal stage come which is the last stage of team development. At this stage, it is compulsory for team manager to organize and keep the last five stages in good condition by checking or repairing it regularly. If the manager of the team think that there is any guilty or disturbance in team, he can start the work again after some pause. Manager can called the meeting again and search the solution of described problems. Manager can use different type of methods which can be associated with successful team renewal. These are:

–Self-assessment

–Shared leadership

–Action oriented renewal strategies

There are also situations where the manager, or the other team member, recognizes that the group is not exhibiting normal levels of output or enthusiasm. This may occur even though other renewal strategies are in place and operative.

Team Leader/ Manager Role

Team leader role in organizing and forming a team rapport is very crucial. Leaders play a ladder role in development of team. Critical to development and maintenance of any work team is the behavior and the general philosophy manager’s bring-subordinate relationship. More over, team leader, for managers to effectively contribute to the team-building process they must be able to influence group members. Rosen describes four factors likely to result in the manager having influence over subordinates. They are as follows.

• They (leaders) have superior knowledge about the group’s task and how it ties in with the larger organization.
• Group members feel the manager has a right to tell then them what to do.
• The group members think the member is just like them.
• Group members find both the manager’s apparent personal motives for being in the job and the process by which he or she was selected acceptable.

Although each of these factors plays an important role in determining the level of managerial influence, it to the perceived motives of the manager that we now turn out attention. The following characteristics are important elements of leaders when they interacting with subordinates.

• The manager has will to manage
• Looks out for more than “number one”
• Balances internal and external pressures
• A leader act like one
• Uses power judiciously
• Treats staff as a group rather than as individuals only

How can Leader shape team behavior?

There are several alternatives available for leaders whom they can try to turn the individuals into team. Most important ways of improving team behavior are as under:

• Proper Selection
• Employ training
• Rewarding the appropriate behavior

Proper Selection

Many individuals already possess personal skills to effective team players but some candidates don’t have any personal skills to effective team. So, hiring team members, in addition to checking on the technical skills required to successfully perform the job, the organization should ensure that candidates can fulfill their team roles.

Employ Training

After proper selection of team members, now there is need to train those employs whom manager has selected. It is very necessary that training should be purposeful and result oriented. Training specialist can conduct exercises that allow employees to experience the satisfaction that team work can provide. The workshops usually cover such topics as team problem solving, communications, negotiations, conflict resolution, and coaching skills.

Rewarding the Appropriate Behavior

Reward play an important role in shaping behavior according to the own will. The organization’s reward system needs to encourage cooperative efforts rather than competitive ones. Reward and appreciation can build a good rapport between leader and member. Reward can be given inn the shape of promotions, pay raises and other form of recognition should be given to employees who are effective collaborative team member.

Prerequisites for Team Success

It is necessary for teams’ manager that during team building, he/she must consider that which kinds of factors are most important for building effective team. Team manager must keep in mind that such kind of environment he/she provide to worker that can be work oriented. Team leader should focus following steps during development of team. These are as under:

Figure 1.3

Culture

Each organization or an institution member is affected by the existing culture and behavior and there is need to attempt it to behave in acceptable manner. Consequently, the over all organizational culture will affect the degree of team supporting behaviors likely to show either by the managers or their subordinates. Three levels of culture are usually describes:

• Patterns of behavior
• Values
• Norms

Organizational Context

The organizational context that surrounds a team has an important consideration of work team effectiveness. It articulated the need for broaden team research to look beyond the interactions and processes between team members and to include the relationships between teams and the organization they reside in. Improvements in group effectiveness can best be obtained by changing the circumstances in which groups work.

Thus, when attempting to predict behavior within an organization, it is important ot consider contextual variables. These are also called team supporting behaviors. These are:

• The Reward System
• The Education System
• The Information System

Team Climate

Good climate is essential for good team. If the climate of team will be good, it will work properly. Teams will achieve their goals in short period if the coordination among team members is appreciate able. McGrgor and Likert have described 12 characteristics or behaviors that he believes differentiate ineffective and effective teams. These 12 characteristics or behaviors are listed under:

• Clear Purpose
• Participation
• Civilized Disagreement
• Open Communication
• Listening
• Informal Climate
• Consensus Decision
• Clear roses and work assignments
• Share leadership
• Style Diversity
• External Relationship
• Self Assessment

Focus and Agreement

There is an increased probability that group members should have exhibit a desired level of focus and agreement. In other word, the member should jointly agree on where they want to go, understand what needs to done to get there, understand and accept who is responsible for what and committed to team goals. There is however a high level that the group must reach to be considered a true team. When group extra power is reached, group members move in concert and the group becomes more than the sum of its parts. Our normative model indicator that the performance level reached by a group will primarily be a function of three factors. These factors are:

• Group Synergy
• Existing Abilities of Group Members
• Environmental Constraints

Effective Performance

At some point the manager must evaluate the performance of his or her team Hackman describes three criteria of team effectiveness that can be used by the manager to assess his or her group’s effectiveness. The three levels deal with the groups actual output the group processes, and the impact of the team experience on individual members. Specially, Hackman describes his criteria in three following manners:

1)      The productive output of the work group should meet or exceed the performance standers of the people who receive and review out put. If a group out put is not acceptable to its “client” and to managers who are charged with evaluating or are responsible for its performance, it can not considered effective.

2)      The social process used in carrying out the work should maintain or enhance the capability of members t work together on subsequent team tasks.

3)      The group experience should on balance satisfy rather than frustrate the personal needs of group members.

When these criteria are satisfied, the team will achieve his goals with in short period, if these three criteria are dissatisfied the team will never growth.

Impact of Team Management on School organization

The above discussion on the importance of team management and team work reflects that organizing and managing teams for an organization has a huge impact on the quality and productivity of the outputs of the institution/organization. The same concept could effectively be applicable and useful for the improvement and development of a school organization. Instead of working individually and focusing on routine responsibilities,  the head teacher, teachers and other staff members can develop different teams to perform various tasks of the school organization so that they all would work together to achieve their common vision and goals of the school. They can perform more successfully by sharing their individual strengths and skills. Each teacher and staff member must have special skills according to their subject and past experiences, if they jell together to work as teams, definitely it will have a multiplier effect on the output and quality of the school organization. Not only the teachers and principal, but successful school organizations always involve parents of their students, community and other stakeholders of the school in team building and team management process. The potential parents and community members can play a vital role in problem solving functions of a school organization.

Reference

About the Author

Working as Lecturer at Federal College of Education H-9, Islamabad, Pakistan

Could someone critique my resume’s personal profile for me?

Results-oriented (left out on purpose) graduate seeking a position that requires excellent business-related analytical, problem-solving and research skills in an office environment. Motivated self-starter with a desire to contribute to a firm’s intellectual capital and be a valued team member. Recognized for ability to think independently and solve problems with a high standard of accuracy.

It sounds really good, you say what you’re looking for and what you’re good at.
Later in the resume you’ll have to back up “Recognized for ability…” recognized by who and why/what situation.
I would shorten this bit to: “Motivated self starter with a desire to become a firm’s intellectual capital and valued team member.”

“125th Anniversary of the Buddhist Flag in the country” Sinhala.28.04.2010

Vietnam promote festival tourism and Bai Dinh be the first on target

February 2 / 2011 it mean January 6 lunar month of the cat year, the Bai Dinh pagoda located in Gia Sinh commune, Gia Vien district, Ninh Binh province has officially  began traditional festival, with participant of pilgrims , Buddhists, local people, visitors in Vietnam and foreign tourists from all over the world enjoyed festival

Eco drumming sound over the Dinh’s mountains region belong to Gia Sinh commune, that is great announcement for enjoying festival season  was just began  forwarding to holly land of Buddhism . Special art performance program started with Hoa Lu drumming festival and many music dancing acts to celebrated happy new year and complimentary party and country of Vietnam, that will be introduce to people and visitors from everywhere.  
Bai Binh, a pagoda more one million years old, here being a place where Dinh Tien Hoang king established escalading tower to offer the god to implored for moderation climate, late on here also been chosen by Quang Trung king to make offering flag ceremony, encouraging generals and soldiers before attacked Thang Long citadel to defeated Thanh enemy for country liberation. In very sacred atmosphere, Buddhist monk, Thich Thanh Tu, vice president of Vietnam top Buddhism association emphasized:  “New year praying is beautiful culture features of Vietnamese’s spiritual mind” Every years, January 6 of lunar month, the Buddhist clergymen, pilgrims, local villagers and people in nationwide reunion here in Bai Dinh pagoda, respecting kneel on Buddha’s feet to make best wishes to wandering soul of death, wish a happy country and steady people and moderated weathers 
First opening festival closed by deity procession ceremony from grotto – a pagoda located deep inside the cave on the top of mountain overlook out the new one. Flags, drum team and music band and hundreds of old villagers, young boys and girls in traditional uniform for serving are following behide: visitors are lining up long the row of Arhat Buddha Statue with wish the will be bless by Buddha. Formerly Bai Dinh’s festival only last for a week, but recently years here, has become national culture spirit center, so festival will be last for 3 month of spring season

Right from first day of lunar new year, many people and visitors from everywhere are already here at the Ninh Binh to enjoy sightseeing beautiful landscape of former ancient capital city of Hoa Lu land, wandering around to wait for festival start, offering god, imploring Buddha, admired the biggest pagoda in Vietnam, and some break records, very valuable jewels are being keep inside pagoda. Withdraw experiences from previous time, this year Ninh Binh policemen has closely coordinated with local home guards, local police and security force. Traffic warden force be strengthen management, orienting traffic line, show orientation for all vehicle, ensure every things in order and good security condition ,so it is not happen traffic jam for long is like some previous years

Come along with that, culture, sport and tourism department of Ninh Binh province combine with local authority and organization unite has closely control, extend the vehicle parking lot, that has limited chaotic situation when numbers vehicle and people increasing highly at once.

About the Author

Jacky Tan VIET VISION TRAVEL
Travel to Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia you guys must to looking for good hotels in vietnam with good rate, fast deal and high security as well. this is a realiable local travel compnay you trust for you great indochina trip

Buddhist symbols ?

I am doing a project for my World Religions class for Buddhism. I wonder what symbols are important to put on there. I already have; The Buddhist Flag, the Swastika, the deer, the eight auspicious symbols(combined) and Buddha’s Eyes. I have to draw these so maybe something not too hard(like the wheel of life)

Here are all the major Buddhist symbols, I will let you decide if you can draw them or not.

Abhaya Mudra
Bhumisparsha Mudra
Buddha Eyes
Buddhapada
Conch Shell
Buddhist Wheel
Dharmachakra
Dharmachakra Mudra
Dhyana Mudra
Eight Auspicious Symbols
Endless Knot
Golden Fishes
Lotus
Om Mani Padme Hum
Parasol
Swastika
Triratna symbol
Triratna
Varada Mudra
Tibetan Wheel of Life
Wheel of Life
Zen Circle

The colours

Blue

Black

Green

Red

White

Yellow

Spaced Out – On the Buddha’s discourse on Emptiness

Christians can connect to the compassionate Lord, Jesus Christ in many ways. The Bibles, sermons and other church services are the conventional paths by which Christians can affirm their relationship with the merciful Lord, Jesus Christ. There are many Christian books that are made available for the followers of this magnificent religion to understand and comprehend the basic tenets of the religion as espoused by our Lord, Jesus Christ. Christian family books make great reading for you to share with your family. In fact, many families make it a point to read aloud from these Christian books everyday after supper.

There are many versions of the Holy Book, The Bible that are available any Christian bookstore. There are special bibles that you can get for celebrating an important family occasion. The Children’s Bible is one of the most popular Christian books in the United States. This book condenses the teachings of our Lord, Jesus Christ in a format that is easily assimilated by our youngsters. There is also a liberal use of illustrations depicting the life and times of Jesus Christ in these Bibles.

Many Christians are now turning to DVDs and Christian videos to enrich their experience of their communion with God using the visual medium. You can now buy all such Christian merchandise and listen to sermons and other religious discourses from the comfort of your home. Music is also an integral part of Christianity and Christian traditions. The church choir is one of the most celebrated mediums for glorifying and thanking our Lord, Jesus Christ for our countless and bountiful blessings that we have got by His grace. Many Christians renew their faith and range of personal religious beliefs by listening to Christian music CDs.

There are many websites on the Internet that sell Christian CDs, books and DVDs. The best websites selling Christian family books and Christian music prominently display user ratings and popular editorial reviews of all the Christian merchandise that they have put up for sale. Some of the better Christian merchandise websites also donate a part of their profits to deserving charities.

If you visit these websites you can also get the Christian books or DVDs that you want easily by using the multi channel search options that are provided by them. You can search for the Christian products by category, subcategory or by title. This ensures that you get what you want in a jiffy without much hassle. You can even scan the bestsellers list to get ideas for Christian gifts that you may want to get for some family member or friend. Look for some cool bargains when you shop for Christian family books in websites selling Christian merchandise, these are a great way of building up your collection of Christian books in a short time. Good websites selling Christian books, CDs and DVDs allow their customers to post reviews; some of the reviews are frank appraisals of the products and may help you make a purchase of your choice from the website.

Richard Marchand is author of this article on Christian Family Bookstore.

Find more information about Family Friendly Bookstore here.

The first discourse of Buddha in Sarnath is called?

Dharmachakrapravartan

buddha-bar I cd1_1.Craig Armstrong – Weather Storm

Personal Development Success Through 3 Simple Habits

Achieving personal development success has been a 20 year challenge for me. I was introduced to the concept of personal development when a company I worked for sent me to a seminar. A gentleman by the name of Mort Utley spoke, and it was something else! I was totally inspired to become a go-getting, top selling, life of the rich and famous success story. Of course, that enthusiasm ended abruptly at the first door I had to knock on for that company. Motivation gone.

Since that time I have had times of unstructured personal development, like when I got one of the first copies of Steven R. Covey’s 7 Habits Of Highly Effective People. What a great book! Things I learned in that changed me forever. But then I went through another long stretch of sporadic self growth.

The turning point came when I heard Chris Hughes speak about Jim Rohn, and everything came together for me. Chris is a big Jim Rohn fan, and talked about the “habits” of personal development, which are:

1. Read 10 pages of a good book every day.
2. Listen to 20 minutes of a good audio every day.
3. Attend a self improvement seminar every 90 days.

Wow! When I heard that I realized that was the missing link for me. I liked personal development, it helped me be more positive and optimistic, more organized, a better husband and father, and over come negative thinking; but I had never made a habit of it. The really powerful part of this simple plan was the realization that I could do it. It sounded easy. I realized that I could easily fit that simple program into my life.

Once I understood how easy it is to do personal development every day, I got on that track and haven’t gotten off. Since then I have read many books, and listened to a lot of great programs and pod-casts. I now have a fantastic library of personal development books, including:

You Were Born Rich- Bob Proctor
Think And Grow Rich- Napoleon Hill
As A Man Thinketh- James Allen
The Attractor Factor- Joe Vitale
The Dream Giver- Bruce Wilkinson
Seeing Is Believing- Wayne Dyer

I also love biographies, and have a growing collection. I have read the life stories of Andrew Carnegie, Mother Teresa, Gandhi, Einstein, Steve Jobs, Lance Armstrong, Buddha, Benjamin Franklin, Henry David Thoreau, and others. Each of these has inspired and helped me in every area, spiritually, mentally, socially, and in my health and wealth.

So hopefully these three simple concepts inspire you the same way they did me, and you can make a simple habit of personal development that will endure and make a daily difference for you. Some people complain that “motivation” wears off, and that’s true. Kind of like taking a shower, it’s not something you can do monthly! It has to be done daily to really work.

About the Author

Dave Sherwin is an online network marketing expert who won the “Rookie Of The Year” award in his network marketing company. He is also the co-founder of the Lighthouse Marketing System, and co-author of “Lighthouse Marketing,” The Art And Science Of Attracting People Into Your Business.

Get Lighthouse Marketing Guide 1.0 for free at:

http://escapethematrix.net/blog

Did Gautama Buddha ask followers to worship him ?

I’d read so many books about him. Some book say yes and some say no.

The most salient aspect of Buddhism is FREEDOM in its practice. The Buddha encouraged his followers to use their common sense and human intelligence to analyze his teachings before accepting them. The natural law of cause and effect rules the world. No matter who you are and where you are, or what you believe, this universal LAW rules supreme. There is no escape. It is perfectly impartial. In simple language, good begets good; evil begets evil.

On one ocassion when asked what to do when he passed away, the Buddha advised his followers to follow his teachings. He said that when one sees the teachings, one sees the Buddha. One does not have to worship him.

Amithaba Buddha – Eye can see you (Bright Remix)

Gautama Buddha- Book Excerpt

Gautama Buddha

Born 563 B.C.

Died 483 B.C. (Approximate Dates)

Buddha was born a privileged prince named Siddhartha Gautama in Nepal. He lived a luxurious life with his wife, Princess Yasodhara, till the age of twenty-nine, when he realized he’d never stepped foot outside the palace gates and might actually like to take a look around. Seeing poverty and death for the first time, he began to wonder not only how the other half lives, but how to attain a state beyond birth, death, or even desire. (If it were me, I would have run back inside to the grand buffet.)

Leaving the palace behind, he dabbled for six years in meditation, extreme asceticism, and self-mortification, rejecting them all for moderation. After one particular stint of mind-blowing contemplation under a tree, he attained Enlightenment, and became known simply as the Buddha. His spiritual awakening gave him brilliant insight into the nature and cause of human suffering, and a knowledge of how to become happy. The Buddha’s goal, then, was to teach his new philosophy to the masses — or at least a few good men along the road.

The aim of Buddhism is to attain true enlightenment, or nirvana: a peaceful state where the individual is free from desire and self-consciousness. Passed down by oral tradition for hundreds of years after his death, Buddha (whose name literally means “enlightened one” or “awakened one”) had a message of love as the eternal rule, common sense, and focusing the mind on the present moment. For the last fifty years of his life, Buddha spread the word through out India to pretty much anyone who would listen: nobles, outcasts, common folk, and leaders of other religious faiths. His philosophy was open to all, and he made thousands of converts during his travels.

The largest concentration of Buddhists in the world today resides in eastern Asia. In India, Hinduism has absorbed many of Buddha’s ideas, and many Muslims believe Siddhartha is a prophet of Islam. Point being, there’s plenty of Buddha to go around . . . In fact, estimates put followers at around four hundred million, making Buddhism the sixth largest religion on the planet.

Michael Stusser: I gotta say, you are one happy fella.

Buddha: And for good reason: All that we are is the result of what we have thought. If a man speaks or acts with an evil thought, pain follows him. If a man speaks or acts with a pure thought, happiness follows him, like a shadow that never leaves.

MS: That explains why my back is killin’ me, huh?

B: Those who are free of resentful thoughts surely find peace.

MS: Speaking of peace, what do you think of all the statues and key chains and T-shirts of you in hipster gift shops?

B: If they bring about spiritual enlightenment, I’m happy to be the icon for self-reflection.

MS: But did you see the Buddha tankini from Victoria’s Secret?

B: So long as it is not toilet paper, I am at peace.

[There is a long, awkward silence. Two more hours pass.]

MS: Ever hear of the band Nirvana?

B: A band of enlightened brothers?

MS: No, a hard-rock group from Seattle.

B: I have many devoted followers in Seattle.

MS: Try and make ’em give up coffee, we’ll see how long they stay enlightened.

B: Teach this triple truth to all: A generous heart, kind speech, and a life of service and compassion are the things which renew humanity.

MS: Point well-taken. Say, odd question, perhaps, but are you a god?

B: I consider myself a guide — a teacher. But try and understand that there is no intermediary between mankind and the divine. People create distinctions out of their own minds and then believe them to be true. In the sky, for example, there is no distinction between east and west.

MS: Let’s say I wanted to take a beginner’s Buddhism class. Where would I start?

B: The secret of health for both mind and body is not to mourn for the past, nor to worry about the future, but to live the present moment wisely and earnestly.

MS: To be honest, I’m thinking about all the errands I need to run this weekend. I’ve got this bum lawnmower that —

B: Focus here, young man. The quiet. The tea before you. The sun as it streams into this room.

MS: But so much of your focus is on suffering. You’re like a Jewish mother . . .

B: Think of the suffering as identifying the disease. First we diagnose the problem, and more importantly, we prescribe the cure.

MS: More suffering?

B: Now it is you who are kvetching like a Jewish bubbe. The road that leads out of suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path.

MS: All right, give ’em to me.

B: The Eightfold Path: proper understanding, proper thought, proper speech, proper action, proper livelihood, proper effort, proper mindfulness, and proper concentration.

MS: I’m sorry, what was that last one?

B: Proper concentra — HA! A joke from a young mind. This is a beautiful example of proper effort, but your understanding is faulty. This will take time.

MS: So the Buddha goes into a pizza shop and says, “Make me one with everything.”

[There is a long pause. Like, painfully long.]

MS: As a prince, you had it all. Your father, King Suddhodana, even arranged a marriage to a wonderful gal. But you left it all behind. Why?

B: At the age of twenty-nine I finally looked beyond the walls of the palace. There I saw the four sights.

MS: An old crippled guy, a diseased dude, a decayed, nasty corpse, and an ascetic, right?

B: The truth of life: that death, disease, age, and pain are inescapable. Poor outnumber the wealthy, and the pleasures of the rich eventually come to nothing.

MS: That is deep. Though I’m not sure if I saw these things I’d leave all my possessions — and inheritance — to become a monk.

B: You may or may not choose to walk in my footsteps. Remember that thousands of candles can be lighted from a single candle, and the life of the candle will not be shortened. Happiness never decreases by being shared.

MS: Apparently — Buddhas crop up like weeds. Some say you’re the seventh Buddha, others the twenty- fifth, and maybe the fourth. Which are ya?

B: The incarnation of a Buddha begins long before his birth, and continues moons beyond his death. In fact, millions of lives have walked the Bodhisattva path on the road to nirvana. If you want a number, simply pick one, and I’ll wear it on the back of my Buddha uniform.

MS: OK, more importantly, who’s the next one?

B: Like I’d tell you. I can share this: His name will be Maitreya, and he’ll appear after Shakyamuni’s teachings have disappeared from the world.

MS: Yeah, that helps. Listen, I hope you’re not offended by this, but I keep reading about how you were competent in martial arts and hiked for miles each day. So how come you were, ya know, so fat?

B: Yes, you are mistaking me for someone else.

MS: The jolly, Laughing Buddha with the potbelly. That’s not you?

B: I’m afraid you are describing a character called Hotei, usually seen in China. He is a representation of an obese, medieval Chinese monk. I was quite fit.

MS: Really? Well, can you clear up any other misconceptions about yourself?

B: My eyes were blue, I had fine, curly hair — yes, hair — and rather than being the chowhound you may have imagined, I was indifferent to hunger, environmental conditions, and all bodily appetites.

MS: So, no Pringles, then?

B: No, thank you.

MS: And if I rub your belly?

B: Our interview will cease.

MS: There are a lot of “nightstand Buddhists” — freelance Buddhists looking for a quick fix. Some inner peace. Is that cool with you?

B: There are only two mistakes one can make along the road to truth: not going all the way, and not starting.

MS: You really are the real deal.

B: Remember: Health is the greatest gift, contentment the greatest wealth, faithfulness the best relationship.

MS: I’m OK with a lot of this, but you were celibate from the age of twenty-nine until your death. Is that part completely necessary?

B: Believe nothing, no matter where you read it, or who said it, no matter if I have said it, unless it agrees with your own reason and your own common sense.

MS: Uh, it doesn’t.

B: And it doesn’t mean that you will ever awaken from the slumber of ignorance in this life or the next.

MS: Sex just seems like one of those things that’s on my mind a lot, that’s all.

B: However many holy words you read, however many you speak, what good will they do you if you do not act upon them?

MS: Or don’t act, in this case.

B: Remember this: What we think, we become.

MS: Then right now I’m a triple tall vanilla latte. I’m going to assume you don’t want one . . .

[The Buddha is still and quiet.]

MS: Your last words were, “All things must pass away. Strive for your own salvation with diligence.”

B: Yes.

MS: Well, dude, that was a George Harrison tune! From the Beatles?

B: Beetles, boars, men, and women can all learn from my inner peace.

MS: All right, but I gotta get you this CD. There are some things even I can teach the Buddha.

B: And let me turn you on to a state beyond suffering, called true Nirvana.

MS: So you do dig music! That’s awesome!

B: You have much to learn. Of this I’m sure.

Copyright © Michael A. Stusser, 2007

The above is an excerpt from the book The Dead Guy Interviews by Michael A. Stusser Published by Penguin; September 2007;$14.00US/$16.50CAN; 978-0-14-311227-3 Copyright © Michael A. Stusser, 2007

Author

Michael A. Stusser is a Seattle-based writer and game inventor. His “Accidental Parent” column (ParentMap magazine) recently won the prestigious Gold Award from the Parenting Publications of America. Stusser is a contributing writer for mental_floss and Seattle Magazine, and his work is frequently published by Law & Politics, Yoga International Magazine, and Go World Travel Magazine.

Stusser is also the cocreator of The Doonesbury Game with Garry Trudeau (winner for “Best Party Game of the Year,” GAMES magazine, 1994); EARTHALERT, The Active Environmental Game; and Hear Me Out.

About the Author

http://us.penguingroup.com/static/html/blogs/guest-author/dead-guy-interviews-michael-stusser

what does the two eyes of buddha stand for?

Buddhism classifies the eye into five categories; namely, the Physical eye, Heavenly eye, Wisdom eye, Dharma eye, and the Buddha eye. It should be pointed out first that the term ‘eye’ used here does not refer to the ordinary human eye. The human eye is but one kind of physical eye. As a matter of fact, the human eye is not the best example of this category. An eagle has eyes which can see much farther than can those of a human. An owl has eyes which are much more sensitive to light than our eyes, and can see things in the darkness that we cannot see.

Physical Eye

In order to illustrate the limitations of the human eye, I shall use a chart prepared by scientists which is called the electromagnetic spectrum (Chart I). This chart tells us that our naked eye can only see a very narrow strip of the universe, called visible light. We cannot see infrared wave lengths and beyond, nor ultraviolet wave lengths and beyond. This means that before man invented the instruments to assist his naked eye in detecting the universe beyond the visible band, the world that he saw and considered complete, true, and real was actually incomplete and a very small portion of the whole universe. It is really amazing to realize that more than 2,500 years ago Buddha drew this same conclusion without the assistance of any of the instruments we now have.

Chart I

The following example may illustrate more clearly the inferiority of our human eye, and how it compares with the heavenly eye:

Imagine that there is a totally enclosed dark house in the middle of a big city, with one very small window from which one can see only crowded tall buildings, a little blue sky above, and a few limited human activities. Suppose a child is born and grows up in this house. What would be his impressions of his world? They would no doubt be based on what he sees through the small opening. No matter how eloquently one might describe to him the beauty of the vastness of a seascape and the wonder of a view at sunrise and sunset he could hardly understand and appreciate them.

This is precisely how our human eye limits us. We are actually in a dark house, viewing the universe through a very small opening which is our physical eye. Yet we insist that what we see is the complete, real, and true world.

Now imagine that there is another house on top of a mountain. The house has a large picture window from which one can see the unlimited sky and infinite horizon. Maybe we can make it even more romantic by saying that numerous flower gardens and dancing girls surround the place. Again, a child is born and grows up in this house. Is it not conceivable that the world he envisions is much greater and more beautiful than the one seen through the small window facing a crowded city? According to this analogy, the second child possesses the heavenly eye whereas the first one has only the physical eye.

Heavenly Eye

Usually it is said that the heavenly eye is possessed by gods or goddesses in heaven. According to Buddhism, however, this statement is not entirely correct because we human beings can also obtain the heavenly eye. There are two ways to achieve it. One way is through ‘dhyana,’ a Sanskrit word which is commonly (but incompletely) translated as ‘meditation.’ The other way is to add an instrument to the naked eye (which is also a kind of instrument that can itself be transplanted). Although the first way, meditation, is a much superior method, the second way is probably easier for modern man to understand. Modern man is able to see into remote space by employing a powerful telescope. Modern man can watch the activities of bacteria by using a microscope. Today, one can observe events happening millions of miles away by means of space vehicles and television, and can see many other wonders which in the Buddha’s time were exclusive to the heavenly eye. In those days, dhyana was probably the only means of enabling a human being to transcend the boundary set forth by the physical eye. It is clear that Buddha realized that although man’s ability to see is infinite, that ability is actually limited by the physical eye. However, through years of meditation, Buddha discovered that the barrier of the physical eye can be broken and that the original ability of man to see can be fully developed. When that occurs, there will be no difficulty in extending one’s vision as far as the realm perceived by the heavenly eye.

Up to this point I believe that you can understand the physical eye and the heavenly eye without difficulty. In Buddha’s time, it was much more difficult for man to understand the heavenly eye; today, practically speaking, everyone possesses the heavenly eye to some degree. It is, therefore, comprehensible to us.

Wisdom Eye

Now we come to the wisdom eye.

To describe the wisdom eye we need to introduce a very important and fundamental concept in Buddhism, which in Sanskrit is called ’shunyata’ and may be translated as ‘emptiness.’ This is a unique teaching that cannot be found in any other religion.

Voluminous scriptures in Buddhism are devoted to the study of emptiness. What I can offer you today is really a drop of water from a vast ocean, but I will try my best. I will introduce to you three analytical modes of thinking, described by the Buddha on many occasions, which lead to the understanding of emptiness:

The analytical method of disintegration.
Allow me to use a radio as an example. Imagine that I have a radio here. If I take out the loud-speaker, can you call the loud-speaker the radio? The answer is no. You call it the loud-speaker. Now take out the transistor. Do you call the transistor the radio? Again no, it is the transistor. How about the condenser, the resister, the plastic case, the wire, etc.? None of these parts are called the radio. Now note carefully. When all the parts are separate, can you tell me where the radio is? There is no radio. Therefore, ‘radio’ is simply a name given to a group of parts put together temporarily. When one dismantles it, the radio loses its existence. A radio is not a permanent entity. The true nature of the radio is emptiness.

Not only is the radio emptiness; the loud-speaker is too. If I take the magnet out of the loud-speaker, do you call it a loud-speaker? No, you call it a magnet. If I remove the frame, do you call it a loud-speaker? Again no, you call it a frame. When all the parts are taken apart where is the loud- speaker? So, if we dismantle the loud-speaker, it loses its existence. A loud-speaker is not a permanent entity. In reality, a loud-speaker is emptiness.

Now, this analytical method of disintegration can be applied to everything in the world, and will lead to the same conclusion: Everything can disintegrate; therefore, nothing is a permanent entity. So, no matter what name we call a thing, it is, in reality, emptiness.

Buddha applies the method of disintegration to himself. In his imagination he removes his head from his body and asks if the head would be called the human body or self. The answer is no. It is a head. He takes his arm off his body. Would this be called the human body or self? The answer is again no. It is an arm. He takes the heart out and asks whether this is the human body or self. The answer is again no, which we understand now even more precisely since a heart can be removed from one body and transplanted into another without changing one person into another person. Buddha takes every piece of his body apart and finds that none of the parts can be called the human body or self. Finally, after every part is removed, where is the self? Buddha therefore concludes that not only is the physical body emptiness, but the very concept of self is emptiness.

The analytical method of integration.
Although we see hundreds of thousands of different things in the world, man is able to integrate them into a few basic elements. For example, based upon chemical characteristics man has classified gold as a basic element. We are able to name thousands of golden articles ranging from a complicated golden statue to a simple gold bar, but all of these articles could be melted and remolded into other forms. They are changeable and impermanent. The things which remain unchanged are the common chemical characteristics, due to which we call all of these articles ‘gold.’ In other words, all of these articles are integrated under the category of the element which we call gold.

In Buddha’s time, Indian philosophers integrated everything into four basic elements, namely, solids, liquids, gas, and heat. Buddha went further and declared that the four elements could be integrated into emptiness. Continuing with our example of gold, Buddha’s statement means that we can also question the existence of gold as a permanent entity, even though we have recognized it as a common characteristic of the various golden articles. Whatever we can show is but a specific form of gold, such as a gold bar which is basically changeable and impermanent. Therefore, gold is simply a name given to certain characteristics. Gold itself is emptiness.

By the same reasoning, the Buddha concluded that all solids are emptiness. Not only are solids emptiness, but liquids are too, since the characteristics of fluidity are formless, ungraspable, and empty of independent existence. Thus, 2,500 years ago, Buddha concluded that everything in the universe can be integrated into emptiness.

It is certainly interesting to note that Western scientists have reached a similar conclusion. Before Albert Einstein discovered the theory of relativity, scientists integrated everything in the universe into two basic elements, namely, matter and energy. Einstein unified these two elements and proved mathematically that matter is a form of energy. By doing so, he concluded that everything in the universe is simply a different form of energy.

But what is the original nature of energy? Although I would not venture to assert that energy is the same as emptiness, I would at least like to say that energy is also formless, ungraspable, and analogous to emptiness.

The analytical method of penetration.
Buddha performed this method by means of meditation. Meditation may be difficult for most of us, but fortunately today’s scientific technology furnishes us with certain analogies which can give us some comprehension of this method. Let us refer back to the electromagnetic spectrum. We know that our naked eye can see only the small portion of the universe which is visible to us, but with the aid of certain instruments, such as an infrared device, x-ray, microscope, etc., modern man is able to see other realms of the universe. To help you understand this more thoroughly, I introduce another chart (Chart II). Here we see an ordinary man as he would be detected by different instruments at different wave lengths. The chart is divided into five sections. Under number one you see an image mainly consisting of red, yellow, and green colors, which is a man as detected by an infrared device. Under two is a man seen by our naked eye. Under three is a man seen through an x-ray apparatus, whereby the skin and flesh disappear but the structure of bone remains. Next to it, marked four, is a picture of the molecular structure of a human body seen microscopically. To the extreme right is an empty space marked five.

Chart II

Please don’t be misled by this chart to think that these various images and the empty space are different entities. They are all the same man. Also don’t be misled into the notion that the images occupy different spaces, from left to right. Actually they are all in the same place. To make it more clear, please suppose that I am the man depicted on the chart. Now just imagine that your eyes are able to detect infrared. What you see standing in front of you is a red, yellow, and green colored image. Now shift back to the instrument you use daily; my external form is perceived by your naked eyes. Next imagine that your eyes can see with an x-ray. My skin, flesh, and blood disappear and what you see now is the bone structure of my body. Changing to another instrument, the microscopic eye, the man standing in front of you is a complicated chain structure of molecules. Now penetrate a bit further. Modern science teaches us that molecules consist of atoms, and atoms consist of particles, and ultimately all mass can be converted into energy, the original nature of which is something that we cannot see or hold. Let’s call it formless form, which is represented by the empty space numbered five on the chart.

Your attention is invited to the fact that I am the same man in the ordinary sense, but that I can appear to you in different forms: colorful image, fleshly body, structure of bones, assembly of molecules, many other forms corresponding to different realms or instruments, and finally the formless form.

This third method, the analytical method of penetration, again leads to the same conclusion that everything in the universe can be penetrated to its foundation, called energy by scientists, and emptiness by Buddha.

Now please note a very important point: My discussion so far has been strictly intellectual. However, emptiness is a state of direct experience. It is said that when one reaches that state there is an experience of tremendous bliss which is hundreds of times stronger than any kind of bliss ever experienced by ordinary man. Furthermore, emptiness is a state in which one transcends the sense of change and impermanence .

Now let me go a step further. As you may know, the realization of human suffering was the direct cause which led the Buddha-to-be, Prince Siddhartha, to renounce his palace and to become an ascetic in search of the way leading to the emancipation of mankind. Buddha listed eight kinds of human suffering, called ‘duhkha’ in Sanskrit, which has a somewhat more extensive meaning than the word ’suffering.’ The eight sufferings are birth, old age, sickness, death, loss of loved ones and pleasant conditions, association with unpleasant persons and conditions, failure to obtain what one wants, and impermanence. I do not have time to explain the eight sufferings to you in detail, but if you carefully analyze them you can conclude that all eight sufferings are related to, or have originated from, the physical body and consciousness that we call self. The physical body and consciousness of the self are the foundations upon which all human sufferings are built.

Now, if the physical body and the consciousness of self are no longer in existence when the state of emptiness is achieved, how can suffering still exist? When one reaches that stage, everything in the universe, including oneself, is seen as emptiness. All human sufferings disappear, and one is said to possess the wisdom eye.

It’s like sudden relief from a deadly heavy burden. It’s like the unexpected reunion of a mother with her son who had disappeared for years. It’s like the discovery of land on the horizon while one is sailing desperately on a stormy sea. These are a few of the descriptions of the great delights that are experienced when the wisdom eye is gained.

Many disciples of Buddha reached this stage. Such people were called arhats. Although they were saints, Buddha issued a stern warning to them: “Don’t stop at the wisdom eye.” Buddha explained that with the physical or heavenly eye we see the incomplete, changeable, and unreal world as complete, permanent, and real. Thus we become attached to the world, which is why we suffer. This is one extreme. With the wisdom eye we see everything in the universe as impermanent, unreal, and empty, and like to remain in that state of emptiness. This becomes an attachment to emptiness, and is the opposite extreme. Once there is attachment, whether to a substance or to emptiness, the consciousness of self, which is the root of all ignorance and suffering, cannot be completely eliminated. To obtain the Dharma eye is, therefore, the ultimate teaching of Buddha.

Dharma Eye

What is the Dharma eye? A man is said to have the Dharma eye when he does not stay in emptiness after gaining the wisdom eye. Instead, he recognizes that although whatever he sees in different realms is only a manifestation, it is nevertheless real with respect to its realm.

Let’s refer to the Chart II again. One who has only the physical eye will insist that only the physical body is real, since he lacks the knowledge of all other realms. One who possesses the wisdom eye sees that these forms are phantoms which are impermanent, insubstantial, and unreal, and that emptiness is the only state which is real and permanent. Thus does one become attached to emptiness.

Now, one who possesses the Dharma eye will say that although it is true that all such forms are manifestations, they are not entities separate from emptiness, and they are real with respect to the realm they are in. This realization automatically generates an unconditional, nondiscriminative universal love and compassion. Such a person is said to possess the Dharma eye; in Buddhism that person is called a bodhisattva.

Once one overcomes the attachment to emptiness, the unconditional, nondiscriminating love and compassion arising spontaneously from a direct experience of emptiness is truly a wonder of mankind. This teaching makes Buddhism a most unique and profound practical religion.

Let me tell you a story to illustrate the difference between an arhat who has achieved the wisdom eye and a bodhisattva who possesses the Dharma eye:

A huge mansion is on fire. There is only one door which leads to safety. Many men, women, and children are playing in the mansion but only a few of them are aware of the danger of fire. Those few who are aware of the danger try desperately to find a way out. The way is long and tricky. They finally get out of the mansion through the heavy smoke. Breathing in the fresh open air again, they are so delighted that they just lie on the ground and do not want to do anything more. One of them, however, thinks differently. He remembers that many people are still inside and are not aware of the danger of the fire. He knows that even if they are aware, they do not know the way that leads to safety. So, without considering his own fatigue and risk he goes back into the mansion again and again to lead the other people out of that dangerous place.

This person is a bodhisattva.

There is another famous Buddhist story which has been introduced to Western readers by Professor Huston Smith in his distinguished book, The Religions of Man.* It goes as follows: Many people are traveling across a desert in search of a treasure at a remote location. They have walked a long distance under the hot sun, and are tired, thirsty, and desperately in need of a shaded place to rest and some water or fruit to quench their burning thirst. Suddenly three of them reach a compound surrounded by walls. One of them climbs to the top of the wall, cries out joyfully, and jumps into the compound. The second traveler follows and also jumps inside. Then the third traveler climbs to the top of the wall where he sees a beautiful garden, shaded by palm trees, with a large pond of spring water. What a temptation! However, while preparing to jump into the compound, he remembers that many other travelers are still wandering in the horrible desert without knowledge of this oasis. He refuses the temptation to jump into the compound, climbs down from the wall, and goes back into the immense, burning desert to lead the other travelers to this resting place.

* New York: American Library, 1958.

I believe that everyone here will have no difficulty in understanding that the third person is a bodhisattva.

It should be pointed out here that such compassion is not superficial but is deep and fathomless. It has no pre-requisite such as “because I like you” or “because you obey me.” It is nondiscriminating and unconditional. Such compassion and love arises spontaneously from the direct experience of emptiness, the state of perfect harmony, equality, and lack of attachment of any sort.

By this point I hope that you have some understanding of the four kinds of eyes. Here is a story about two famous verses in Zen Buddhism:

The Fifth Patriarch in the Tang Dynasty of China once asked his disciples to write a verse to present their understanding of Buddhism. The head monk Shen Hsiu presented one as follows:

The body is a wisdom tree,
The mind a standing mirror bright.
At all times diligently wipe it,
and let no dust alight.

The Fifth Patriarch commented that Shen Hsiu had only arrived at the gate and had not entered the hall.

A layman called Hui Neng was also in the monastery. Although he had not yet received instruction from the Fifth Patriarch, he was nevertheless a highly gifted person. When Hui Neng heard the verse, he disagreed with Shen Hsiu and said, “I have one also.” He submitted this verse:

Wisdom is no tree,
Nor a standing mirror bright.
Since all is empty,
Where comes the dust to alight?

Later, Hui Neng became the Fifth Patriarch’s disciple and achieved enlightenment. He became the famous Sixth Patriarch of Zen Buddhism. He gave different teachings to persons of different capacities. Although there is no such record, I would venture to say that the Sixth Patriarch would have had no hesitation in telling a beginner who requested instruction that

The body is a wisdom tree,
The mind a standing mirror bright.
At all times diligently wipe it,
And let no dust alight.

Now, with what kind of eye did Shen Hsiu present his verse? With what kind of eye did Hui Neng disagree with Shen Hsiu and present his own verse? And why, after he had become Sixth Patriarch would he use the one with which he had disagreed before? What kind of eye was the Sixth Patriarch employing now? I will not answer these questions but would like to leave them with you so that you might find your own answer.

Buddha Eye

Now we come to the buddha eye.

So far I have managed to say something to you about the four kinds of eyes, but there is really nothing I can say about the buddha eye because whatever I say will miss the point.

But I also know very well that I cannot just stop here, say nothing, and raise a golden flower like Buddha did. Not only do I not have the kind of radiation to convey understanding through silence, but also you will not be satisfied. It is understandable that just as we all have the physical eye, we all have the physical ear and the physical mind. I therefore have to say at least something.

You will notice that in our discussions about the first four kinds of eyes, there was always a subject and an object. For example, with the physical eye we have a human being as subject and worldly phenomena as object. With the heavenly eye we have divine beings as subject and the vast realms of space as object. With the wisdom eye we have arhat as subject and emptiness as object. Bodhisattva is the subject and the various realms of the universe are the objects when we refer to the Dharma eye. When we talk about the buddha eye, however, it would be quite incorrect to say that buddha is the subject and the universe is the object, because the distinction no longer exists between buddha and the universe. Buddha is universe and universe is buddha. It would be equally wrong to say that buddha possesses the buddha eye because there is again no distinction between the buddha eye and buddha. Buddha eye is buddha and buddha is buddha eye. In short, any duality you can construct is not relevant to the buddha eye.

The second point I wish to make about the buddha eye concerns the nature of infinite infinity. What do I mean by infinite infinity? Although we say that the human concept of the cosmos is an infinity, such a concept is just like a bubble in the vast sea when compared with Buddha’s experience of the cosmos. Is it incredible? Yes, it is incredible. But let’s think of what we have in mathematics. You know that the first degree of power is a line. The second degree of power is a plane. The third degree of power represents a three-dimensional space. All of these shapes could already be infinite in size. Now how about the fourth degree of power, the fifth degree of power, up to the nth degree of power? If you are able to explain what the nth degree of power represents, you might have some understanding of Buddha’s cosmology: the infinite infinity.

Thirdly, I wish to say something about the nature of instantaneity and spontaneity. This is again a concept that is very difficult for human beings to understand. To us, the duration of time is a solid fact. Moving through this time factor, man grows up from an infant, to a youth, to maturity, to old age, etc. It is beyond our comprehension to say that time does not exist for the buddha eye, but that is what the buddha eye entails. Billions of years are no different from one second. A world which is measured as billions of light years away from the earth according to our cosmology can be reached in just one instant. What a wonder this is!

The final point I wish to make about the buddha eye is its nature of totality and all-inclusiveness. Some of you might have seen a movie called “Yellow Submarine.” A monster which is like a vacuum machine sucks in everything it encounters. After it has sucked in everything in the universe, it begins to suck in the earth on which it stands. The vacuum machine is so powerful that it sucks the whole earth into itself and finally it sucks itself in. This image illustrates the all-inclusiveness of the buddha eye.

Now, let me summarize. I have mentioned four points about the buddha eye:

no subject and no object; that is, no duality
infinite infinity; that is, no space
instantaneity and spontaneity; that is no time
all-inclusiveness and totality; that is, no nothingness.
These are the four essential concepts of the buddha eye, if we must express it in words.

Before I conclude today’s talk I would like to tell you another story.

A couple was always at odds with each other. Then they heard about the five eyes. One day they began to quarrel. It looked as if it would be one of their usual arguments with both husband and wife so upset, angry, and frustrated that they wouldn’t speak to each other for days. Suddenly the husband said, “I am using my heavenly eye now. You are just a skeleton. Why should I argue with a skeleton?” The wife kept silent for a while and then burst into laughter. The husband asked, “What are you laughing about?” The wife said, “I am using my wisdom eye and you’ve disappeared. Now there is nothing bothering me. I am in shunyata.” Then they both laughed and said, “Let us both use our Dharma eyes. We are all manifestations, but let’s live happily together in this realm.”

Today we are celebrating this great man, Buddha Shakyamuni’s birthday. Reverend Chi Hoi is going to deliver to you a big birthday cake. I am only giving you some birthday candy. My birthday candy is this advice: Don’t always use your physical eye, but broaden your view. Do not let your mind always be carried away by what you see in this narrow band of “visible light.” Break this narrow perception. Broaden your view. Develop and open your heavenly eye. Gradually develop and open your wisdom eye. At that point please remember our numerous fellow men and other poor creatures struggling in the immense burning desert of birth and death. Open your Dharma eye! Eventually I hope that all of you will have the buddha eye, and will reach the highest state of enlightenment so that you are capable of leading the numberless sentient beings in infinite space to buddhahood as well.

TV Buddhas – Buddha Rock / THEY SHOOT MUSIC

Buddha has to be dated to 1800 BC

One of the most important calculations of Indian history has been done on the basis of the lifetime of a certain Indian emperor called Ashoka, considered to be one of the greatest emperors of world history. He was a Buddhist emperor who was responsible for the spread of Buddhism, to distant corners of India and the neighboring countries, by sending large number of Buddhist missionaries to these places. He built thousands of Buddhist stupas and established thousands of Buddhist monasteries all over his empire that stretched from Iran to Bangladesh and from Central Asia (Afghanistan) to South India. A large number of rocks and pillars, present all over his empire, have been inscribed with his edicts and promulgations to his subjects, written in Magadhi, Sanskrit, Greek, and Aramic languages. He was initially a cruel king who killed a large number of his brothers in order to ascend the throne. He inherited a large empire and tried to expand it by waging a war against the neighboring kingdom of Kalinga. He won the war, but the gruesome sight of thousands of mutilated dead bodies at the war completely changed his heart. He felt repentant about it, stopped his empire expanding spree, and converted to Buddhism after being attracted to the Buddhist principles of non-violence and renunciation.

We have two sources to thank for much of this information on Ashoka – his rock edicts and Buddhist scriptures (one Indian and two Sri Lankan). The scriptures talk about Ashoka of Mauryan dynasty. Mainstream historians are not much aware of Ashoka of the Gupta dynasty. As per them, there is only one Ashoka – Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty, as given by the Buddhist scriptures. And these Ashoka’s rock edicts mention five neighboring Greek and Egyptian kings – Antiochos, Ptolemy (second), Antigonos, Magas, Alexander (second). Since these kings are dated to 250-300 BC, this has been the date arrived for Ashoka (Mauryan). As per the Buddhist scriptures, Ashoka (Mauryan) was crowned two hundred and eighteen years after the demise of the Buddha. This would mean that Buddha’s date is roughly 500 BC. And this date tallies perfectly with the date of 500 BC they arrived through the Aryan Invasion methodology. The calculations seem completely perfect and pretty straight forward, and mainstream historians have accepted these calculations completely for the last two hundred years.

The most troubling aspect with these date calculations is that there are two Chandragupts and two Ashokas in Indian history. And as per the writings of Greek traveler Megasthenes, the Gupta dynasty was ruling India at about 300 BC. And these writings of Megashtenes tally with the Puranic calculations as well. And Indian history does not talk about two Chandragupts or two Ashokas ruling India at the same time. While traditional Indian and Greek sources talk about Ashoka of Gupta dynasty ruling India at about 300 BC, mainstream historians have arrived at the conclusion that Ashoka of Mauryan dynasty was ruling India at around 300 BC. So we either have to discard the writings of Megashtenes as well as Puranic sources completely, or we have to see if mainstream historians have got the date of Ashoka wrong.

Several mainstream historians are not aware of this controversy. Even if they are aware, they dismiss Megasthenes as an unreliable writer and dismiss the Indian scriptures as pure mythology. They even easily shrug away the fact that other Greek accounts at the time of Megasthenes do not talk much about the presence of Buddhism in India. And almost all the mainstream historians are blissfully unaware of the presence of two Ashokas in Indian history. A handful of Indian historians are aware of this puzzle; they have suggested that the Ashoka of the Buddhist sources belongs to Gupta dynasty and he ruled India around 300 BC. However, the Buddhist scriptures clearly talk about the emperor Ashoka to be belonging to the Mauryan dynasty, completely negate the arguments of the few handful Indian historians who try to wriggle out of the conundrum. This has been the biggest puzzle that has been haunting Indian historical calculations for more than a century, almost like a Sherlock Holmes and Hercules Poirot mystery.

Does this mean that the mainstream historians are completely happy and are not at all puzzled by their calculations? The answer is, surprisingly, no; they are still quite puzzled over the most important things.

The rock edicts of Ashoka mention that Ashoka converted to Buddhism because of the remorse he felt on account of Kalinga war. However, both the Indian as well as the Sri Lankan Buddhist scriptures differ with this; these scriptures do not talk anything about Kalinga war! They talk about Ashoka being converted by the serene teachings of a certain novice Buddhist monk Samudra/Nyagrodha.

Why are Buddhist scriptures silent about Kalinga war?

While scriptures talk about 84,000 monasteries established by Ashoka, the edicts are silent on this; they do not mention any Buddhism related activities by Ashoka. The Buddhist scriptures talk about Ashokan missionary activities to Kashmir, Maharashtra, Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Mysore, Himalayas, Western India, and Greek country. However, the edicts talk about medical help to his neighboring kingdoms; they talk about the names of the kings and dynasties around his empire including Choda, Pandya, Satiyaputra, Kerala, Sri Lanka, and five Greek kingdoms. The scriptures do not talk about officials called Dharma Mahamatras in his kingdom, as professed by the edicts. There are several other discrepancies as well in the basic details of his life.

The Ashoka of Buddhist scriptures is an exceptionally devout individual who used to fall prostrate at the feet of even the lay Buddhist monks. He was desperate to be known as the greatest of all donors to the faith of the Buddha. Indian scripture mentions that, at the end of his life, he donated almost everything he had to Buddhist monasteries. He was someone who wanted to ensure that Buddhism spread all across the globe. In Bengal, one follower of Mahavira drew a picture showing Buddha bowing at the feet of Mahavira. Ashoka came to know about this and ordered that all Mahavira followers at that place be executed – 1800 of them were slain in a single day! He decreed in a similar manner on another occasion, promising gold to those who brought slain heads of non-Buddhists! And Ashoka went out of his way to convert people into Buddhism as some legends show. He wanted to convert his brother Veetashoka to Buddhism; for doing this, he enacted a drama. One day, he contrived with his ministers to get Veetashoka sit on the emperor’s throne for a few minutes. He then, as if he was not aware of the happenings, caught his brother in the act. He then declared that his brother sitting on his throne is an act of treachery and decreed that his brother be executed. Ashoka, however, gave one week time for the execution and let his brother enjoy all the royal comforts for a week, as if he (Veetashoka) were the emperor. At the end of the week, Ashoka called his brother and asked him if he enjoyed the one week of heavenly comforts of an emperor. Veetashoka told him that the death that was hanging on his head did not allow him to enjoy the heavenly comforts at all. Ashoka then told him, “if you are oblivious to pleasures just because of one impending death, how do you expect enlightened monks to be happy about comforts of this life when they have to fear the deaths of hundreds of lives in future births?” Veetashoka was taken by this and converted himself into a Buddhist monk.

However, the Ashoka of the rock edicts gives us a completely different picture. In one of the edicts, he does profess his faith in the Buddha; but that is about it. There is no evidence that he carried out any missionary activities. None of his rock edicts mention anything about the teachings of the Buddha. In fact, the Ashoka of rock edicts talks about equality of all religions! One of the edicts, mentions the following :

“Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi (Ashoka), does not value gifts and honors as much as he values this – that there should be growth in the essentials of all religions. Growth in essentials can be done in different ways, but all of them have as their root restraint in speech, that is, not praising one’s own religion, or condemning the religion of others without good cause. And if there is cause for criticism, it should be done in a mild way. But it is better to honor other religions for this reason. By so doing, one’s own religion benefits, and so do other religions, while doing otherwise harms one’s own religion and the religions of others. Whoever praises his own religion, due to excessive devotion, and condemns others with the thought “Let me glorify my own religion,” only harms his own religion. Therefore contact (between religions) is good. One should listen to and respect the doctrines professed by others. Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi (Ashoka), desires that all should be well-learned in the good doctrines of other religions. Those who are content with their own religion should be told this: Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi (Ashoka), does not value gifts and honors as much as he values that there should be growth in the essentials of all religions. And to this end many are working – Dhamma Mahamatras, Mahamatras in charge of the women’s quarters, officers in charge of outlying areas, and other such officers. And the fruit of this is that one’s own religion grows and the Dhamma is illuminated also.”

Unable to explain these dichotomies, some mainstream historians have dismissed the Buddhist scriptures as unreliable; they go purely by the rock edicts to get a picture of Ashokan personality, while they rely on the Buddhist scriptures for historical aspects. We can see as to how selective they have been about the whole Ashokan episode – they have dismissed Megasthenes as a liar, they have dismissed the Indian scriptures as pure mythology, they have shrugged off other Greek writings, and they finally have dismissed even the Buddhist scriptures! I think that they have a whole lot of answering to do about the Ashokan episode, even if they seem to currently think that their calculations are perfect.

I think the whole confusion has arisen because there are two emperor Ashokas, and both are Buddhists! The Ashoka of Buddhist scriptures belongs to the Mauryan dynasty of 1500 BC. He was a compulsive individual, devout in his faith, and took steps to spread his religion far and wide by sending missionaries and constructing Buddhist monasteries and stupas. However, he had nothing to do with the edicts and the Kalinga war. The Buddhist scriptures are talking about Ashoka the Mauryan. The scriptures mostly talk about parts within India – Kashmir, Maharahtra, Mysore, Himalayas, Western India. Buddhism was not yet spread in India by his time – so the scriptures are clearly talking of the spread of Buddhism within India under Mauryan emperor Ashoka.

The Ashoka of the edicts belongs to the Gupta dynasty of 300 BC. He was the one who was involved in Kalinga war. He felt remorseful and later converted to Buddhism. However, by his time, Buddhism was already spread far and wide and there was no need for him to send missionaries. Moreover, by his time, Buddhism was reeling under the onslaught of Sankarcharya and the Vedic religion was making a comeback. As we shall see a little later in this discussion, Buddhism was in a confused state about its ideology because of the theological attack launched by Sankaracharya. Buddhism was in a transition stage and it did not give much scope for missionary activities. So, Ashoka the Gupta was not hawkish about his religion, but was much more tolerant of all religions. And the places mentioned in his edicts are mostly his neighboring kingdoms – the edicts are not talking about places within India. The places mentioned in the edicts are Choda, Pandya, Satiyaputra, Kerala, and Sri Lanka on the south of his empire in South India, and five Greek kingdoms to the northwest of his empire. The places mentioned are clearly not talking about spread of Buddhism within India.

The two Ashokas are completely different. The confusion has arisen because both are Buddhists; so both the stupas and the edicts are being attributed to one and the same person. If we consider that the edicts belong to one emperor while the stupas and monasteries belong to another, the riddle is solved. The two Ashokas have been merged into one by historians.

So if we arrive at the date of 1500 BC for the Buddhist Mauryan emperor Ashoka, as per the Buddhist scriptures, we can easily arrive at the date of the Buddha. Buddha precedes Ashoka by two hundred and eighteen years. So this would put Buddha at anywhere between 1700 BC and 1800 BC. This roughly tallies with the Puranic calculations as well, which put Buddha’s date to around 1800-1900 BC.

About the Author

Excepts from Prithviraj R’s book on history – “19000 Years of World History: The Story of Religion” – a religious perspective of world history, taking into account the historical aspects of the major religions of the world. Prithvi’s blog: http://19000years.blogspot.com.

If they made a rock opera of the life of Jesus/Moses/Buddha/Krishna etc, who would you like to play each part?

Give reasons
Here’s my line-up
Bob Dylan for Abraham (eternal wanderer)
Leonard Cohen for Moses (an authoritative and solemn voice)
Jeff Buckley for Guru Nanak (Eternal longing for the Divine)
Let’s keep it respectful, it’s just a bit of fun

They already made a rock opera , its called Jesus Christ Superstar.It might have been before you were born though.

The Blob movie trailers

The Disappearing Act of Writing a Letter

I take out a sheet of paper and smooth its curled edges with my hands as I lay it on my writing desk. The paper is not white, rather more of a beige or splash-of-cream color, really. It contains no lines, just the minimal echo of the tree it once was part of. I take a whiff and it smells of ink and pencil and the perfume I’d dripped on the desk a bit earlier. There are no spots on the page fortunately, yet the scent is of lemon and salt and the sea. My favorite fountain pen, an old Waterman, the color of malachite, given to me years earlier still feels able-bodied and ready in my hand. I think a moment and then put pen to paper.

Truth is the sheer act of writing a letter in just this way to a person, placing it in an envelope, licking a stamp to it and mailing it, sadly, appears to be a dying art. And partly why I chose to write Letters Between Us as an epistolary novel, to recapture that art, just a little.

Now we have email, blogs, Skype, Webcams, instant messaging, and texting – so much faster, quicker, and more efficient. There is something to be said, however, about the act of holding a pen in your hand and writing to friend or family member, even if only to share a brief hello, a thoughtful remembrance, a declaration of love, or something more. It is embedded with the careful process of cogitative thought, let alone leaves a palpable imprint of the writer’s energy. One day it might even be a treasure to be discovered amongst the long forgotten possessions of another. In addition, writing a letter in such a way brings to light a voice distinctively different from other genres of writing. Imperfect, unedited it is a reflection of the times in the raw.

What would we have done without the letters exchanged between loved ones during war time: the Civil War, World War I, World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War, for example? From such letters we have the voices of a private history from long dead family members and/or friends in their own hand-writing importing a tone that we may never have actually heard them speak during their life time.

This happened after my mother-in-law died. We found love letters written to her on V-Mail (or Victory mail, which was the microfilming of specially designed letter sheets. So as not to waste cargo ship space with large bulks of shipped mail overseas, microfilmed copies were sent instead and then enlarge” at an overseas destination before being delivered to military personnel). My husband’s mother, Martha, was affectionately addressed as “Toni” by her husband away fighting in the Pacific theatre during World War II. No one in the family understood why Marvyn Overman called Martha Overman – Toni? But there it was in the salutation in a facsimile of a letter-sheet reproduced to about one-quarter the original size: Dear Toni, My beautiful Toni, Beloved Toni. Toni. Toni – she will always be Martha to me – was back home in Hollywood, California raising her toddler son: my husband.

This little bit of information called to mind a young couple, they were 25 at the time, deeply in love and suffering from separation. The loving voice of this couple is one I never heard either of them use in the decades that I spent in their presence. Basically, they communicated by fighting, yelling and forgiving and then doing it all over again. Family dinners at their home were usually: eat fast, hold our breaths, talk a little, and hope Marvyn and Martha didn’t do their Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf routine on that particular night. Once they began, all we could do was wait for a break in the action, and cut and run. And yet, they once talked of love and nicknames no doubt written and whispered to one another in days gone by. To this day neither my husband, nor his two brothers know the origin of this pet name for their mother.

Being separated by war is nothing new to this generation of 18-34 year olds. Computers and their full complement of audio/video software enable close circuit communication over many miles and multiple time zones. Families separated by the current wars in Iraq, Afghanistan and elsewhere can talk to and see each other as if they were sitting in the same room. These conversations over thousands of miles have meaning and impact, don’t get me wrong. But as far as leaving a written record as the letter I am completing to my unborn great grandchild (who exists only in my imagination and that of her potential parents: my son or my daughter) I can’t help but wonder if she or he will prefer to benefit more from this piece of myself on paper, which wears my perfume and is embossed with traces of my own hand writing – or from popping in a portable drive that shows me moving and talking. There’s no perfume in that.

About the Author

Linda Rader Overman is a Professor of English at California State University, Northridge. Her work encompasses fiction, and nonfiction consisting of multifaceted elements including photographs, narrative portraits, images, texts, personal and social history, poetry, letters, and diaries. Her epistolary novel Letters Between Us is published by Plain View Press. To learn more about her, and to receive her newsletter, visit
Linda Overman
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Can anyone recommend a good book on American military history?

Something that covers main events, the basic things, the Revolutionary War, Civil War, Both world wars, Korean War, Vietnam, you know the likes, possibly up until the Gulf War. And can anyone recommend any specific books about each war, I’m wanting to get the basics from something like a highschool text book, and then read up in depth with a more specific book.

A few good books are (and don’t gig me on spelling) To Fight with Intrepidity, and Shadow Warriors. Outstanding books.